e-Learning Style Guide
e-Learning Style Guide provides the standards to be followed when developing Web-based Training (WBT) and Computer-based Training (CBT).
This Guide focuses on the following areas:
1. General Courseware Design & Development Standards
2. Instructional Design Standards
3. Graphical User Interface - Menu and Navigation
4. Media Standards
5. Technical Standards
6. Writing Standards
7. Assessment Standards
8. SCORM Considerations
9. Quality Assurance
Table of Contents
GENERAL COURSEWARE DEVELOPMENT STANDARDS ......................................3
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN STANDARDS...........................................................5
GENERAL STANDARDS....................................................................................5
LEVELS OF INTERACTIVITY..............................................................................5
USE OF INTERACTIVITY TO PRESENT INSTRUCTION............................................6
EMBEDDED PRACTICE.....................................................................................6
LEARNER FEEDBACK/REMEDIATION..................................................................6
STANDARD SCREEN TYPES..............................................................................6
Module Home Page.........................................................................................6
Module Intro Page..........................................................................................6
Knowledge Check...........................................................................................7
Module Summary Page....................................................................................7
Module Test Intro Page....................................................................................7
Module Test Summary Page..............................................................................7
Quiz Results Screen..........................................................................................7
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE - MENU AND NAVIGATION................................7
MENU ORGANIZATION....................................................................................7
NAVIGATION.................................................................................................8
MEDIA STANDARDS...........................................................................................8
SCREEN DESIGN...........................................................................................9
TEXT............................................................................................................9
LAYOUT........................................................................................................9
GRAPHICS....................................................................................................10
ANIMATION .................................................................................................10
AUDIO .........................................................................................................11
VIDEO..........................................................................................................11
TECHNICAL STANDARDS.......................................................................................11
HARDWARE ......................................................................................................11
BROWSER SPECIFICATION…................................................................................12
AUTHORING TOOLS............................................................................................12
DATA FILE STRUCTURE.......................................................................................12
AUDIO..............................................................................................................12
VIDEO..............................................................................................................12
GRAPHIC AND PHOTOS.......................................................................................12
LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (LMS)...............................................................12
WEB HOSTING SERVER.......................................................................................12
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN DELIVERABLES.................................................................13
WRITING STANDARDS..........................................................................................13
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS.........................................................................13
PUNCTUATION....................................................................................................13
BULLETS............................................................................................................14
NUMBERS...........................................................................................................14
DATE AND TIME..................................................................................................14
CAPITALIZATION.................................................................................................15
EMPHASIS..........................................................................................................15
ASSESSMENT STANDARDS .......................................................................................15
LEVEL ONE EVALUATION..........................................................................................15
LEVEL TWO EVALUATION .........................................................................................15
LEVELS THREE AND FOUR EVALUATION......................................................................16
SCORM CONSIDERATIONS.........................................................................................16
SCORM OVERVIEW....................................................................................................16
QUALITY ASSURANCE.................................................................................................17
General Courseware Development Standards
Development Process
e-Learning courseware will be developed using a variation of the Instructional Systems Design (ISD) process known as the ADDIE model.
The familiar ADDIE instructional systems design model specifically ensures that typical analysis-phase output is further defined to solidify the scope of the course for both instructional designer and client stakeholder alike. Additionally, where evaluation occurs after implementation in the ADDIE model, evaluation/revision takes place throughout the development life cycle ensuring our efforts consistently hit the mark. The phases of ADDIE include:
Analysis
This phase is the foundation of all other phases of instructional design. In this phase we look for learner needs, identify the problem such as lack of specific skill, and determine the possible solution. Deliverables: Instructional Design Plan and Project Plan.
Design
The outcome of Analysis phase creates blueprint for the instruction. This blueprint, called a Design Document, covers the training needs, instructional strategies, content and creative treatment. The document is invaluable for keeping the project on track.
IT begins analyzing and organize the “raw” course content outlines for each module at a detailed level and develops Design Components of what the presentation template will look like for client approval. Additionally, IT Storyboards the course content. Deliverables: Design Document (Course Outline, Performance Objectives, and Instructional Strategies.), Storyboards and Project Plan (Final).
Develop
IT authors the course content (text, imagery, audio) and addresses technical considerations with the client’s LMS. IT provides prototype of a course module or lesson. Deliverables: Prototype, and completed WBT or CBT Course.
Implementation
IT and client install and test the course within the LMS then release it to the learner or audience.
Deliverables: Completed participant feedback forms, Source Files and the final IT Certification for WBT or CBT Course.
Evaluate/Revise
An ongoing event is really not a “phase” at all. Evaluation/Revision points are built into the
Project Plan throughout the project life cycle. Deliverables: N/A
It’s important to point out the reason and value in the Evaluate/Revise phase. Evaluate/Revise is analogous to the familiar ISD concept of Formative Evaluation in that during the entire course of design and development, a review/revise step should be built into the schedule from conception through go-live.
Each phase’s output in turn becomes the input for the subsequent phase and at each transition point throughout development – at minimum – should be a built-in review/revise step to capture any and all errors in either the course’s design or development. Doing so ensures that the initiation of each new project phase begins with the proper and correct input, to the extent possible. If an error goes uncaught, it can understandably “snowball” to eventually become a much bigger and broader issue that could potentially be more time consuming and expensive to correct further on down the development road.
Development Team
It is IT expectation that an instructional designer (ID) will be responsible for the design and development of all of the e-learning deliverables. In the appropriate phases of the project, IT expects the ID to work with a multi-disciplinary team that includes:
Subject Matter Expert(s)
Instructional Designer(s)
Content writer(s)Editor(s) (also Subject Matter Experts)
Graphic Artist(s)
Web Developer(s)/Programmer(s)
Integrator
Audio/Video Producer(s)
Quality Assurance Specialist(s)
In some cases the ID may perform multiple roles, such as all of the design, authoring, and graphic/media design responsibilities.
Deliverables
The following should be specified as deliverables in contracts for custom e-Learning courseware development:
Phase
Deliverables
Analysis
Instructional Design Plan
Project Plan (Initial)
Design
Design Document
Course Outline
Performance Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Storyboards
Project Plan (Final)
Development
Audio Scripts
All Media
Prototype Course ware
Final Course ware
Implementation
Completed participant feedback forms
Final IT Certification WBT or CBT Course.
Source Files
Evaluate/Revise*
Test Items as submitted in Storyboards
*IT shall maintain ownership of the final courseware, including the underlying source code, including all audio, video and graphic files.
Instructional Design Standards
General Standards
Use the following general standards:
Design for the following hierarchy: course, module, lesson, topic
State learning outcomes (at course and module lesson levels minimally)
Allow learner to navigate between courses and individual modules in any order he or she desires
Include a “help” feature on how to use the courseware
Design for a screen resolution of 800X600 pixels
Write course welcome text, module welcome page text, and lesson welcome page text
Design courses that are no more than 30 minutes in duration (approximately 25-35); exceptions to this standard may be approved by IT
Provide for each module “what’s in it for me”
Provide a running page count (“X of X Pages”) on each page of each module.
Include a module summary page
Provide introductory statements, transitional statements, and summary statements as needed to ensure a coherent flow across pages
Do not assume that the learner will take modules or lessons in any particular order (If knowledge from a previous lesson or from the learner’s work experience is needed to understand the new ideas that will be presented in the lesson, provide a brief summary of this knowledge.)
Address one concept, procedure or item of instruction on each page
Provide verbatim audio script text on the page, if audio is used
Provide learners with information in the fewest steps and shortest time possible
Use custom illustrations, where possible, to teach complex concepts
Use royalty-free graphics and photographs to add visual interest
Avoid stereotyping by race, gender or ethnicity
Develop module-level assessments; test every terminal learning objective (module-level assessments are listed as a discrete selection on the left-hand menu)
Track student scores by module within the IT LMS
Levels of Interactivity
The level of interactivity to be provided in the courseware is agreed upon and documented in the work plan and further described in the analysis/design documents.
IT uses the following definitions to describe the degree of interactivity that will be included in courseware:
Level I – Passive. The learner acts solely as a receiver of information. The learner progresses linearly through course reading text from the screen, viewing video or listening to audio
Level II – Limited Interaction. The learner makes simple responses to instructional cues. The responses may include answering multiple choice or true/false questions
Level III – Complex Participation. The learner makes a variety of responses using varied techniques in response to instructional cues. Techniques may include building a model/diagram from available parts
Level IV – Real-Time Participation. The learner is directly involved in a life-like set of complex cues and responses. (Note: This would be a level developed for the style guide. Level IV can be expensive.)
IT understands that decisions on the degree of interactivity in any e-Learning product are based upon relative importance of the content, budget, time line and audience size. Minimally, IT expects learners to interact with the courseware approximately every four pages.
Note: It may be appropriate to design modules within the same course for different levels of interactivity (e.g., one module may focus on foundational principles and another module may use complex, branched case studies for application of those principle; an introductory module might be developed at Level I whereas a later module might be developed at Level III).
Use of Interactivity to Present Instruction
Engage the learner as frequently as possible through the use of interactive teaching strategies
Include a wide variety of screen (interaction) types to keep the learner engaged throughout the course
Develop and adhere to a standard set of instructions (learner prompts) for each screen (interaction) type
Embedded Practice
Use these standards to design and develop embedded practice exercises:
Provide opportunities for unscored practice after each concept or skill is taught
Provide the context for the practice activity (relate it to a concept or job skill in introductory text)
Ensure that practice opportunities are directly linked to learning outcomes
Use the standard IT screen for embedded practice exercises
Learner Feedback/Remediation
Use these standards to write feedback for embedded practice exercises:
Avoid using phrases such as “You are incorrect” or “That’s wrong.” Instead, use “Incorrect” followed by feedback that provides the learner with the correct answer when appropriate
Use “Correct” when the learner answers correctly; add additional language that paraphrases the correct answer
Standard IT Screen Types
Module Home Page The Module home page orients the learner to the overall module (describes the module goal and content). This page also provides instruction on how to begin the course. Learners are encouraged to complete the Help tutorial, if they have never taken a IT WBT or CBT course before. Learners are given instructions to click on a screen cue to begin.
Module Intro Page The module intro page orients the learner to the module. Most importantly, it captures the learner’s attention and creates anxiety for learning. This page should provide “What’s In It for Me?” This page also provides instruction on how to begin the module (i.e., click on a lesson title). The total number of pages as well as where the student is within that total is provided.
Knowledge Check Use the standard interaction screens for all unscored, embedded practice exercises.
Module Summary Page The module summary page wraps up the module. Module learning outcomes are paraphrased. This page also provides instruction on how to continue (e.g., select another module). If desired, one (the same) graphic may be used on every module summary page in a course.
Module Test Intro Page The module test intro page orients the learner to the module assessment. Clear instructions on how to take the test are provided. The number of questions in the test is stated. The test scoring page is explained. The learner is informed that the threshold for mastery is 85% for each module test. This page also provides instruction on how to start the test (i.e., select the Next button). If desired, one (the same) graphic may be used on every module test intro page in a course.
Module Test Summary Page The module test summary page is the module “scorecard” for the learner. The learner’s score on the module test is provided (expressed as a percentage). The learner is informed, in text, whether or not he/she passed the test.
Quiz Results Screen After each module quiz, the learner is taken to a Quiz Results screen where they are given instructions about where to go next. The learner is encouraged to revisit lessons of the module if he/she does not pass the quiz.
When the learner scores 85% or higher on a module quiz, he/she is instructed to click 'Next' to go to the course summary page.
Graphical User Interface - Menu and Navigation
Menus and navigational elements help learners move through the courseware. Menus guide the learner to modules, lessons and topics while navigational elements allow for maneuvering through the courseware.
This section addresses the standards for:
Menu organization
Navigational elements
Menu Organization
Course menu is provided on IT LMS; modules are listed within each course
Provide clear instructions on how to use the menu
Create the shortest module titles needed to convey meaning
Use descriptive headings such as Module 1: Introduction and Overview
Use the following common button naming rules:
o Use Help to access navigational guidance
o Use Glossary to provide access to a list of terms and definitions
o Use Exit to end the course. Do not use Quit, End or Stop, which might refer to quitting the immediate exercise or module
o Use Forward or Next and Back or Previous to designate page turning. Do not use Up or Down
o Use complete page counters such as “1 of 30”, not partial counters, such as “Page 5 that does not indicate how much longer the module will last
Navigation
Learners should spend time mastering the course objectives, not the course navigation.
Navigation must be learner-friendly and must comply with the following standards:
Provide learners with the ability to control all navigational activities
Navigation must be intuitive for the learner
Provide clear instructions or cues for all required learner activities
Navigational elements should be formatted as buttons should include the following functions:
o Forward (or Next)
o Back (or Previous)
o Exit
o Menu
o Glossary (possibly a future add)
o Tools (when applicable)
o Help
Note: Other navigational buttons may be added, as appropriated
The buttons should be consistent within each course and module; all buttons and icons should have a consistent and unique appearance
Visual cues, such as mouse cursor changes and rollover highlights, used on all buttons should be consistent
Navigation through the modules should be primarily learner controlled; however, a suggested sequence should be provided
All buttons are labeled with text descriptions or with rollover text where appropriate
Buttons should “gray out” or disappear when they are inactive
All non button graphics should have design properties distinct from that of buttons
Navigation buttons should be displayed in exactly the same position every time they appear
Buttons are grouped logically and located where the learner is likely to be looking
Learners should have one-click access to Help, Exit, etc.
Modules and lessons can be completed in any order, unless the instructional design requires sequential accomplishment
Identification of module and lesson titles as well as page numbers sequenced, as Page 1 of 20, should be utilized
The program should track which modules have been completed and provide a visual reference to the learner of what he has completed in the courseware
There should be three or fewer levels of menus (i.e., module, lesson, topic)
Menu items should be listed in sequential or logical order
Media Standards
This section defines the standard look and feel for WBT and CBT courseware. These standards are used to maintain style consistency within the following areas:
Screen Design
Text
Graphics
Animation
Audio
Video
Screen Design
Use the following standards for general page design:
Establish specific location for the presentation of instructions and prompts
Provide recurring information in consistent locations
Provide generous white space to separate blocks of text
Avoid scrolling (window and/or text box), to the extent possible
Text
Use the following standards for text layout:
Present information in a top down, left to right instructional format
Limit the amount of text on page
Use short lines of 40 – 60 characters; maximum of 60 characters per line
Design text layout in short segments or phrases
Use bullets, numbered lists, tables and charts to break up lenIthy sentences
Line up text under the first letter in any bulleted list, if the bulleted text wraps to a second line
Do not indent paragraphs
Left justify text
Use the following standards for text appearance:
Use consistent color for text and graphics throughout the session
User a San serif type font such as Ariel or Verdana:
o 16-point for the course title
o 14-point bold for Knowledge Check heading
o 14-point bold for subheadings (page titles)
o 11-point for instructional text
o 8-point for instructions within the instructional area of the screen
Break up blocks of text to make it easier for the learner to scan the content
Underline hyperlinks only
Use bold font or italics to emphasize a word or phrase.
Do not use all capital letters or underlining to emphasize words or phrases
Use standard Web conventions for hyperlinks (not yet selected, currently being selected, already been accessed)
Do not use blinking text or repetitive animation
Layout
Page layout should conform to the screen. Specifically, the instructional or content area of the screen should have a lesson title, spacing between the title and the screen instructional text, the instructional text, and any media (image, audio/video/animation controller and/or window) all placed in such a way that makes appropriate use of the screen’s white space.
The resulting screen layout should be pleasing to the eye, conform to left-to-right, top-to-bottom western text standards, and should not cause confusion or dissonance with the learning objective.
Graphics
Use the following standards for illustrations and photographs:
Use the standard 216-color Cross Platform Web Safe color palette. Most computers supports only 256 different colors, a list of 216 Web Safe Colors was suggested as a Web standard. Although more and more computers are equipped with the ability to display millions of different colors, it is still advisable to conform to the use of the 216 Cross Platform Web Safe Colors. This 216 cross platform web safe color palette was originally created to ensure that all computers would display all colors correctly when running a 256 color palette
See the 216 cross platform web safe color palette below:
Use colors that accommodate color-blind learners; as such try to include at least one color-blind reviewer in all deliverables, especially in the review of the course screen design components
Establish and maintain a convention for the use of color(s) to denote meaning
Maintain a constant perspective in a series of visuals
Do not include contractor or other corporate logos in the courseware
Avoid graphics that may become outdated in a short time
Use clip art sparingly, if at all possible
Do not use “cartoon” characters
All text within the graphic must be readable
Be consistent with all graphics (with the use of borders, effects and quality)
Make sure there is no advertising in the photo (i.e. car model name, billboard signs, license plates)
Animation
Use the following standards for animation:
Allow user to control the start of the animation when possible
Avoid timed effects (If one or more events are to launch on a page, the learner should trigger the event. Events should not be timed to launch.)
Do not use blinking graphics or text
Use special effects when required for emphasis or transition; do not overuse
Special effects (e.g., fly-in transitions, etc.) should not be used for “entertainment” value only. There should be some tangible and purposeful reason for their use; else do not use them
Do not use any special effects that detract from learning
Use animation to display concepts that are difficult to describe
Audio
Use the following standards:
Use audio judiciously (e.g., to demonstrate interpersonal skills, to demonstrate sounds heard on the job, to engage the learner – such as providing a talking coach)
Provide verbatim text that matches audio script
Ensure that audio volume levels are consistent throughout the course
Provide an audio “Replay” button when possible
Use one audio talent throughout the course. If role-playing, multiple voice talent may be used, but roles must be consistent.
Do not use sound effects
Video
Use the following standards to select video for courseware:
Use video to reinforce, clarify or emphasize a specific behavior or performance objective that cannot be effectively taught using graphics, stills, photographs or animation
Do not use continuous video clips (more than 15-20 seconds in lenIth) because of file size
Provide a “Replay” button when appropriate
Use appropriate video (e.g., talking head, show and tell, interview, panel discussion, simulation or dramatization)
Because buffering problems tend to hinder streaming media performance, where possible, avoid traditional techniques such as zooming, panning, transitional wipes, dissolves, and fast motion subjects
Technical Standards
This section describes standards for specific technical issues related to the courseware. This section includes the following topics:
Hardware
Authoring tools
Data file structure
Installation
In addition to these standards, all web development and computer security standards specified by client must be followed.
Hardware
The courseware must be designed to perform on the standard hardware configuration in use at the time of development.
Information to determine minimum configuration should include the following specifications:
Operating system: Windows 98 and above
Minimum processor speed: 328 MHz
Standard screen resolution and color depth 800 x 600, 16 bit
Browser Specification
Internet Explorer 6.0 or newer
Note: Keep in mind that some users may access the courseware over a 56K modem
Authoring Tools
Course ware should be developed using non-proprietary authoring tools.
Some examples include:
Articulate Presenter v5 / Quiz maker v2
Dream weaver
Flash
JavaScript
Shockwave
Data File Structure
Each page must load in no more than xx seconds on a 56K modem. (To be tested during courseware development/beta testing.)
Files are stored in a central location and accessible to the entire production team. File names cannot have spaces or special characters and should not be longer than 20 characters.
Audio
WAV format
MP3 format
Video
Compressed digital files – Shockwave, AVI, Quick Time, MPEG, Real Media, Windows Media Player
Graphic and Photos
Compressed, processed files with ALT text descriptions – JPEG, GIF,PNG – are acceptable for web delivery or CD-ROM
Adobe Photoshop file format with layers is also acceptable for uncompressed files. Adobe illustrator is acceptable for uncompressed files
Learning Management System (LMS)
The IT LMS is my moodle and service is provided by the moodle.
Course developers are expected to read the MOODLE LMS Reference Guide (PDF document) prior to developing and installing any courseware on MOODLE. Course must be developed to these specifications. (MOODLE LMS Reference Guide is to be provided)
Web Hosting Server
The IT has installed a server for the development and deployment of its elearning courseware.
More to come on the specifics of this server and requirements of courseware developers.
Analysis and Design Deliverables
Create all analysis and design documents in:
MS Word 98 and above files (Instructional Design Plans, Storyboards, etc.)
MS Power Point (Storyboards, if preferred)
Visio (site maps)
MS Excel or MS Project (project plans)
Writing Standards
The section provides standards to be used when screen text for e-learning courseware. Use the following standards for text language:
Use active voice, second person (you), present tense, and conversational tone when appropriate
Keep language simple, concise and consistent
Write to an 8th Grade reading level (use MS Word’s Flesh-Kincaid Readability Index calculation to manage the appropriate reading levels)
Do not use hyphens to break words
Avoid jargon and slang
Use examples that are universally understood
Avoid references that learners with English as a second language would have difficulty in understanding
Avoid the use of contractions (unless the course is consistently conversational in style)
Avoid language and examples that will reduce the shelf life of the courseware (e.g., dates, references to current events)
Avoid using all capital letters. Learners have more difficulty reading text that is all capitalized than mixed-case letters
Italic should only be used for titles of published works and words that are appropriated from other languages and have not become standard English (e.g., détente)
Use “click” (not “click on”) in learner prompts
Acronyms and Abbreviations
To introduce an acronym for the first time on a page, write out the full name of the entity, followed by its acronym in parentheses
Acronyms do not include spaces or periods
Abbreviations should be used when using titles before and after names (e.g., Mr., Mrs., PhD)
Abbreviations should be used when the acronym for a corporation, institution or country is more familiar than the full name (e.g., USA, IBM, FBI)
Abbreviations should be used for mathematical measurements (e.g., lb., kg.)
Punctuation
Punctuation Type
Standard
Spaces after punctuation
Use one space after periods and colons
Commas
Do not use serial commas immediately preceding “and” or “or” (a serial comma is the last comma in a series of items)
Hyphens
Use a hyphen to connect words in a sequence (e.g., 2003-2004, pp.28-72)
Do not use hyphens to separate syllables within a word
Do not use hyphens to connect two related parts of a sentence.
Quotation Marks
All punctuation goes inside the punctuation marks.
Bullets - symbols
Establish and adhere to a standard symbol for first and second level bullets.
Em Dash
Do not use an Em Dash. The em dash is the mark of punctuation most of us think of when we hear the term "dash" in regard to a sentence. It is significantly longer than the hyphen.
En Dash
Use an En Dash to connect related parts of a sentence (e.g., IT expects the vendor to ensure – through thorough quality testing – compliance to this Guide, SCORM/AICC.) Use a space before and after an En Dash (as shown in example above). The en dash is slightly longer than the hyphen but not as long as the em dash. (It is, in fact, the width of a typesetter's letter "N," whereas the em dash is the width of the letter "M"—thus their names.) The en dash means, quite simply, "through." We use it most commonly to indicate inclusive dates and numbers: July 9–August 17; pp. 37–59. An en dash is the same lenIth as the small letter “n.”
Bullets
Maintain parallel construction in a bullet list (e.g., start all bulleted items with a verb)
Bulleted or numbered lists in a training module should be no more than two levels deep
Use numbered bullets where sequence is important; use symbols for bullets when order is not important
Use a colon at the end of the introductory sentence (i.e., stem of before bullet list)
Capitalize the first word in each bulleted phrase or sentence
Learning Objectives, even when stated in a complete sentence, should not end with periods
Begin phrases (bulleted items that are not complete sentences) with caps and end without punctuation
Do not use “and” or “or” in bulleted sequences
Do not use a comma after each bulleted item
Do not put a period at the end of the last bullet in a list of bulleted items
Do not use a bullet (number or symbol) when there is only one item; there must be at least two items to make a bullet list
Numbers
Use figures to express the numbers 10 and above, all numbers representing mathematical functions or quantities, dates, ages, time, money, and numbers as part of a series
Spell out the numbers nine and below unless they represent precise measurement (e.g.,8.2578) or are part of a complex mathematical formula
Spell out any number that begins a sentence, title, or heading
Date and Time
Write out the date in full (e.g., January 1, 2020)
Use a colon to separate hours and minutes (e.g., 9:00 a.m.)
Capitalization
In headlines, capitalize all words except definite/indefinite articles, prepositions and conjunctions that are shorter than four letters
When using bullets, capitalize the first word contained in each bullet
Emphasis
Avoid excessive use of bolding (it can be distracting and should be reserved for headings)
Do not use italics for emphasis (they are hard to read on screen, and are used specifically for citations)
Do not underline (it can be confused with a hyperlink)
Do not use quotation marks
Use headings and subheadings to draw attention to specific concepts
Assessment Standards
This section provides general guidance on the assessment of learner mastery of course content.
Level One Evaluation
Upon completion of all module tests/quizzes in a course/module, learners will be encouraged, and in some cases, required to complete a Level 1 Course Evaluation, on line for WBT.
The learner accesses the course evaluation via instructions within the course or module itself.
For example Articulate/Quiz maker, have built in assessment development tools that allow the course developer to build and then deliver assessments as part of a course and/or module or as a standalone assessment. Choose the option (built-in or stand-alone) as required. However, built-in assessments require less thought and navigation on the part of the learner and are often times preferred to stand-alone assessments as a result.
Level Two Evaluation
All IT courseware must include an assessment of the learners’ mastery of the course learning outcomes. It is IT expectation that all course/module design documents will state:
A course goal, and
Learning Objectives
Generally the course goal appears on the Course Intro pages and the learning objectives are paraphrased on the Module Welcome page(s).
All learning objectives must be tested.
The threshold for mastery has been currently established at 85% for each module test.
Learners may take each quiz as many times as they wish. Each quiz will be automatically generated from a pool of question items. The quiz presented to the learner will generally be a subset of that total pool of question items and randomized so that each test presented is somewhat unique, to discourage the sharing of quiz answers to other learners. Each time a quiz is completed, the score for that learner, for that quiz, gets overwritten within the LMS.
Whenever a learner returns to the course menu, any modules associated with tests that were successfully passed will be clearly marked as being completed. This will allow the learner to better track their progress throughout the course.
The IT LMS is the training database that will track the learners’ progress through online courses, as well as their pass/fail status on the course tests. Only after a learner successfully passes all module tests then the LMS reflect a “passing” status for a course.
Levels Three and Four Evaluation
Not Required
SCORM Considerations
SCORM Overview
SCORM assumes the existence of a LMS. The LMS launches learning content, keeps track of learner progress, figures out in what order (sequence) learning objects are to be delivered, and reports student mastery through an e-learning course. An LMS is smart enough to know what is to be delivered to the learner, when he/she has mastered a skill or competency, and can branch to the right content when needed (e.g., for remediation). Regular web content and servers don't know how to do this.
SCORM is needed to standardize how to launch and track directed learning experiences, and to define the intended behavior and logic of complex learning experiences so content can be reused, moved, searched for, and re contextualized. Simple hyper-linked web sites don't need SCORM because users aren't being tracked and assessed for skill/competency mastery.
SCORM is like a bookshelf housing volumes (specifications) that originated in other organizations
including AICC etc. However, these specifications have been extended and additional detail, implementation guidance has been added. SCORM is, therefore, more than just a collection of others work, though it directly relies on the source specifications.
SCORM has three parts:
Overview - about the model, vision and future.
Content Aggregation Model - how to put learning content together so it can be moved and reused.
Run Time Environment: How content is launched and the learner's progress is tracked and reported back.
What’s important for the e-learning course developer is the second bullet above: how to design and develop course content that is SCORM compliant. An instructional designer should know that the typical instructional design process does not change for a project to create SCORM conformant content. SCORM considerations by project phase:
Phase
Considerations
Discover/Define
Verify that the content will be deployed in a SCORM conformant LMS. If a SCORM conformant LMS will not be available, re-evaluate the requirement for SCORM conformant content
Identify potential secondary audiences for content. Determine which sections of the content can be shared by multiple audiences
Identify an appropriate strategy for recording meta-data and storing content in a repository. Meta-data enables learning resources to be described in a common way so that they can be searched in a repository and retrieved for reuse
Design
Chunk your content so that sections can be reused
Collaborate with technical developers who are familiar with the SCORM to determine the best way to organize the content to meet the project requirements
Design Sharable Content Objects (SCOs) for content that requires data about the learner's experience with the SCO to be tracked
Design assets for content that is launched by the LMS but does not require data to be tracked about the learner's experience
Development
For content that will be reused:
Storyboard the content so that it can stand alone. For example, do not refer to a previous lesson if it appears in a different SCO
Determine how the reusable content can be effective without context-specific information. Or, provide context-specific information externally from that content
Quality Assurance
This section describes IT expectations for quality assurance efforts performed by development teams.
It is IT expectation that the development team will conduct quality assurance testing on all deliverables prior to submission to IT. Quality assurance is to be performed on all draft and final deliverables from each phase of the development process.
In particular, IT expects the development team to:
Ensure that all teaching and testing strategies comply with the standards provided in this Guide
Ensure that all text complies with the standards provided in this Guide
Ensure that all media with the standards provided in this Guide
Conduct Alpha test on all supported operating systems and browsers
Perform LMS integration testing
Conduct thorough quality assurance testing on Alpha, Beta, and Final versions
The role of IT is to review for content accuracy. IT expects the development team to ensure – through thorough quality testing – compliance to this Guide, SCORM/AICC.
Wednesday, January 27, 2010
Sunday, July 19, 2009
Style and Format for User Guides
Style and Format for User Guides
A user guide is a combination of many things presented in this online textbook. At its core is instruction writing; you need to be good at the writing style, headings, lists, notices, highlighting, tables, graphics commonly used in instructions. As a set of instructions, a user guide should use the style and format.
Headings—Use headings to mark off key contents of the information so that readers can find it quickly. See the chapter on headings for details on planning and designing headings.
Lists—Use numbered and bulleted lists to help readers scan information quickly. See the chapter on lists for details on planning and designing lists.
Special notices—Use special notices such as warnings, cautions, and notes to alert readers to potential problems or emphasize special points. See the chapter on notices for details on planning and designing notices.
Instructional design—In general, use the standard design of instructions; primarily, this means task-oriented headings and sections and numbered vertical lists for actual steps that readers are to perform. See the chapter on instructions for details on planning and designing instructions.
Instructions—and therefore user guides—also make abundant use of:
Graphics—Show readers key components of the objects they will be working with, before and after views, and illustrations of key actions that readers must perform. See the chapter on graphics for details on planning and designing graphics.
Tables—Provide statistical information and other such details in easy-to-access table form. In user guides, tables are particularly useful whenever reference-type information must be presented. See the chapter on tables for details on planning and designing tables.
Highlighting—Use a consistent and standard scheme of highlighting (bold, italics, alternate fonts, color, caps, and so on). See the chapter on highlighting for details on planning and designing highlighting guidelines.
Components of User Guides
As a book, a user guide must have some combination of the standard book-design components such as the following:
· Front and back covers
· Title page
· Edition notice
· Trademarks
· Disclaimers
· Warranties
· License agreements
· Safety notices
· Preface
· Appendixes
· Glossary
· Index
· Reader-comment form
There is no standard combination or sequence of these elements; every company does it differently. Details on the contents, format, and design of these elements can be found in the book-design chapter.
Information Included in User Guides
Here's review the common contents of user guides:
Instructions—The most obvious are those step-by-step directions on how to assemble, operate, or troubleshoot the product. Instructions in user guide should generally be task-oriented—that is, written for specific tasks that users must perform. Instructions should generally use vertical numbered lists for actions that must be performed in a required sequence. Similar or closely related instructions in user guides should be grouped into chapters.
Precautionary information—You'll see notes, warning, caution, and even danger notices in user guides. These represent liability concerns for the manufacturer of the product.
Reference information—User guides typically contain plenty of reference information, but only up to a certain point. For example, if there are numerous commands, a separate book for commands is necessary. Reference information in user guides is often presented in tables: columnar lists of settings, descriptions, variables, parameters, flags, and so on.
Getting-started information—Some user guides will actually include brief tutorials that will help new users get acquainted with using the product.
About the product—User guides also provide some description of the product, a review of its essential features or its new features. Sometimes this information also gets put into a separate volume, if it is extensive. Typically, the volume will be called something like "Introducing New Product...."
Technical background—Sometimes, users guides will include technical explanations of how the product works, what physical or chemical principles are essential to its operation, and so on. For example, you will see considerable background in user guides for graphic or audio programs—you can't operate them without understanding the concepts of brightness, saturation, and hue; mu law, A law, and other such.
Examples of User Guides
Consider a few examples:
Delarina WinFax LITE User's Guide. This book is 5.5 × 8.5 inches and under 150 pages. It is uses by-chapter pagination, with new chapters and sections beginning on a righthand page.
Covers: On the front cover, you see the full book title, a version number, the company name with its logo, and warning that the book is not for retail sale. The back cover contains advertising material—rather atypical for user guides—on the product's best features, special offers on the full version, a 1-800 number to call, and the book number.
Title page: The first page inside this user guide is the title page, which includes the product name, the book title, the book edition number, the date of the edition, the company logo (which includes its name), several addresses for the company, and the not-for-retail-sale warning. The company name has a registered trademark symbol beside it; the product name has the trademark letters beside it. No trademark symbols are shown on the front or back covers.
Edition notice: On the back of the title page is the edition notice. This edition notice includes the book title, a copyright notice, legal statements concerning copying the book, list of trademarked product names occurring in the book, and the document number.
License agreement: On the next page is the software agreement, a two-page thing that outlines permitted uses of the software and related warranties.
Table of content: The TOC begins on a righthand page numbered "i" and lists up to level of headings within the chapters.
Headers and footers: The book title is used for both the left and right footers: on the left-page, the title is right-aligned; on the right-page, the title is left-aligned. The page number appears opposite of both footers, and a solid ruled line is placed just above both footers. The chapter title is used for the inside header on each page; the current heading is used for the outside header on each page. A solid ruled line is placed just beneath these headers.
Preface: The Overview which is treated as chapter 1. It contains some promotion of the product, a diagram of the product's many uses, hardware and software requirements on its use, an overview of the manual contents, and instructions on how to get help.
Body chapters: Chapters use the following design features:
o Chapter title — Large bold Arial letters with the chapter title on the left margin and the chapter number on the right and a double ruled line below.
o Headings — First-level headings are about 1 point smaller than chapter titles, left aligned, with a solid ruled line just below. Second-level headings are about 2 points smaller, left aligned, with no ruled line. Third-level headings are the same size as body text but use bold-italic Arial and are placed on the left margin.
o Text — Body text is a serif font about 10 points in size. This manual does not use hanging-head format; text extends to the same left margin as do headings.
o Graphics — numerous screen captures are used through the book; they are all centered.
o Lists — Numbered lists are used for items in sequence such as steps. Open squares are used for bulleted items that have a subhead. otherwise standard filled disks are used as bullets.
o Highlighting — Text that users must type uses a sans serif type (probably Arial) as do screen buttons, options, field names, and system messages. Bold is used for simple emphasis.
o Notices — Only notes and hints are used. The word "Note:" or "Hint" uses bold-italics. The text of the notice is regular body font indented an inch.
o Appendixes — The book ends with two appendixes: Appendix A addresses common problems with a situation/solution format; Appendix B addresses fonts. These pages are numbered A-1, A-2, . . . B-1, B-2, and so on.
o Index — The book ends with a 10-page index whose page are numbered with lowercase roman numerals starting at i. The index uses the standard but does something unusual with entries. It uses a table-of-contents format for the entries and their page references, connecting them with the sort of leader dots you'd see in TOCs.
IBM Aptiva Reference Guide. This book is also 8.5 × 5.5 inches. It is uses consecutive page numbering throughout the book and is about 120 pages long.
Covers: The front cover has a graphic design with stylized numbered 1, 2, and 3 along with large grid pattern and various sorts of shading. The three elements of the book title are placed at the top, upper third and bottom of the area, respectively. You also see the words "information," "getting help," and "troubleshooting" seems to float between the second and third title elements, giving readers a more detailed sense of the book's contents. The back cover continues the grid pattern and includes the IBM logo with the part number of the book, its print date, a statement that the bopok was printed in th e"USA" and a bar code for the book number.
Title page: This page contains the words "Aptiva Reference Guide" is large serif letter in the upper right of the page—and that's it!
Edition notice: The edition notice occurs on the back of the title page. It is pushed to the bottom of the page and uses a smaller type size, probably 7-point, for its body text. The heading for the edition notice is the edition number followed by the month and year of th edition. The paragraphs of the edition notice states that the book is provided "as is" without any warranty, that the book is for multiple models of the product and that portions of it may not refer to the reader's own particular model. Also included are an address where comments can be sent, a 1-800 number to request additional copies, and the standard copyright line.
Table of contents: The TOC is an unusual design in which all entries are left aligned in the center of the page, with the page numbers to the left about an inch. First-level entries use bold. TOC begins on page iii.
Notices section: The first body section of this manual is for notices—specifically, trademarks, highlighting conventions used in the book, safety notices, and regulatory (communications) notices. The section begins with its own title page on which is displayed the word "Notices" in a large serif font in the upper right corner and with a grid/shading design similar to that on the front cover. The text of the notices section begins on a right-hand page as does the chapter title page.
Body text: Here are the key design features of the body text:
o Text — Text for this book is indented nearly 2 inches. Body text is a rather small sans serif font, probably Helvetica, probably 9 or 10 points. The hanging-head format is used.
o Headings — First-level headings align to to the far left margin, use a blocky bold sans serif font with a solid ruled line above. Chapter titles use a large gray serif font in the upper right corner of the first page of the chapter. Second-level heading align with body text, use sentence-style caps (as do first-level headings) and use the same font as do first-level headings but about 2 points smaller.
o Highlighting — In stepwise instructions, the following elements are bold: buttons, tabs, menu options, menu names, keyboard key names, icon names, parameter settings. Names of disks supplied with the product are in italics. System messages are in regular roman and double quotation marks.
o Steps — Instructions sequences are introduced with a gerund-phrased heading in the block bold font. Substeps or alternate subtasks use infinitive phrasing with the same font but smaller and are punctuated with a colon. Actual steps use a number in the same smaller font with out a period.
Headers and footers: Only footers are used. Bold page numbers (using the same font as the first-level heading but much smaller) are on the outside; the current heading, not chapter title, is centered and in a serif italics font using sentence-style caps.
Special notices: This book uses a light gray box with a white checkmark in it to call attention to special notices. the text of the special notices is the same as the footers: small italic serif font. Usually, the checkmark box is located on the far left margin and the notice text is aligned to the normal body text. Where possible, the checkmark box and the notice text is in the open area between the far left margin and the body text.
Troubleshooting section: The body of this section begin with a flowchart that must be meant to orient a user to the overall process of troubleshooting and to the different troubleshooting resources available. The next section consists of common questions with actions to take depending on yes or no answers. The text of the actions is bulleted or numbered depending on the content and contains cross-references to other areas of the troubleshooting information. The next section is designed in two columns, the left column with the heading "If the problem is.” and the right column with the heading "Here's what to do..." The problem statement in the left column is in bold. the next section is similar except that it lists error codes that are displayed on the computer and actions to take.
Index: The book has a 6-page index formatted in 3 column. Two levels of index entries are used. The page references are set about a half inch away from the text entries.
Process and Internal Documents for User Guides
An important part of user guides—in fact, of almost any technical document—is the process that produces it:
Initial planning—Early planning on a user guide involves needs assessment (is any documentation needed at all?), audience analysis (who will be using the user guide; what are their needs?), task analysis (what will users use the product for; what are their common tasks?), library plan (what books, in addition to a user guide, are needed to support the product?), and so on.
Documentation proposal—If you are working freelance or as part of an independent documentation firm, you may have to write a proposal in an effort to win a contract to do a certain technical documentation project.
Documentation plan—User guides need documentation plans, which are internal supporting documents that specify content, audience, design, format, production team members, schedule, and other such information about a documentation project and its "deliverables." The documentation plan resembles the documentation proposal in certain ways, but the plan represents an established plan agreed upon by everybody involved in the production process (and that means both the user guide and the product it documents).
Prototype and specifications—Important planning tools, which also serve as useful reference tools during a documentation project, include the prototype of the user guide and the specifications for the user guide. The prototype is a dummy version of the book with all planned components of the book (see the list on book-design components) and all planned elements (see the list under format and style). However, the prototype uses "greeked" text (also known as Lorem ipsum like the following, instead of real text:
Typically, the prototype of the user guide is very brief: it need include only as many pages as it takes to illustrate every unique textual component and textual element that will be used in the user guide. Specifications are descriptions of a book design in table form. Specifications describe every unique component or element of a book, so that it can be recreated by someone who might not have access to the electronic files, templates or styles of that book.
Template and style catalog—A well-designed user guide, and a well-designed process to produce that user guide, should include templates and style catalogs. A template is an electronic file that defines such aspects of the user guide as page size, headers and footers, page-numbering style, regular and special page layout, and other such detail. A style catalog is also an electronic thing that defines the format and style of textual elements such as headings, headers, footers, lists, paragraphs, tables, and so on. For example, a style for a "heading 1" might specify 24-point Arial bold with 24 picas above and 12 picas below. Styles help you create a user guide more efficiently; styles also help you maintain consistency in the format and style of that user guide.
Multiple review drafts & sign-off—A good process for the production of a user guide also includes several drafts that editors, technical experts, usability testers, and documentation team members can review and provide comments on. You as writer then implement those comments and produce a new draft for these same people to review again. When everybody is satisfied with the draft of the user guide (or worn out or out of time), they sign off on the user guide, and it can then go into "production," which means producing the finished bound copies.
As you can see, a user guide brings together many of the topics covered in this online textbook. If you are taking a technical writing course, you probably cannot implement all these features and phases of a user guide. Get with your instructor to see which are required.
A user guide is a combination of many things presented in this online textbook. At its core is instruction writing; you need to be good at the writing style, headings, lists, notices, highlighting, tables, graphics commonly used in instructions. As a set of instructions, a user guide should use the style and format.
Headings—Use headings to mark off key contents of the information so that readers can find it quickly. See the chapter on headings for details on planning and designing headings.
Lists—Use numbered and bulleted lists to help readers scan information quickly. See the chapter on lists for details on planning and designing lists.
Special notices—Use special notices such as warnings, cautions, and notes to alert readers to potential problems or emphasize special points. See the chapter on notices for details on planning and designing notices.
Instructional design—In general, use the standard design of instructions; primarily, this means task-oriented headings and sections and numbered vertical lists for actual steps that readers are to perform. See the chapter on instructions for details on planning and designing instructions.
Instructions—and therefore user guides—also make abundant use of:
Graphics—Show readers key components of the objects they will be working with, before and after views, and illustrations of key actions that readers must perform. See the chapter on graphics for details on planning and designing graphics.
Tables—Provide statistical information and other such details in easy-to-access table form. In user guides, tables are particularly useful whenever reference-type information must be presented. See the chapter on tables for details on planning and designing tables.
Highlighting—Use a consistent and standard scheme of highlighting (bold, italics, alternate fonts, color, caps, and so on). See the chapter on highlighting for details on planning and designing highlighting guidelines.
Components of User Guides
As a book, a user guide must have some combination of the standard book-design components such as the following:
· Front and back covers
· Title page
· Edition notice
· Trademarks
· Disclaimers
· Warranties
· License agreements
· Safety notices
· Preface
· Appendixes
· Glossary
· Index
· Reader-comment form
There is no standard combination or sequence of these elements; every company does it differently. Details on the contents, format, and design of these elements can be found in the book-design chapter.
Information Included in User Guides
Here's review the common contents of user guides:
Instructions—The most obvious are those step-by-step directions on how to assemble, operate, or troubleshoot the product. Instructions in user guide should generally be task-oriented—that is, written for specific tasks that users must perform. Instructions should generally use vertical numbered lists for actions that must be performed in a required sequence. Similar or closely related instructions in user guides should be grouped into chapters.
Precautionary information—You'll see notes, warning, caution, and even danger notices in user guides. These represent liability concerns for the manufacturer of the product.
Reference information—User guides typically contain plenty of reference information, but only up to a certain point. For example, if there are numerous commands, a separate book for commands is necessary. Reference information in user guides is often presented in tables: columnar lists of settings, descriptions, variables, parameters, flags, and so on.
Getting-started information—Some user guides will actually include brief tutorials that will help new users get acquainted with using the product.
About the product—User guides also provide some description of the product, a review of its essential features or its new features. Sometimes this information also gets put into a separate volume, if it is extensive. Typically, the volume will be called something like "Introducing New Product...."
Technical background—Sometimes, users guides will include technical explanations of how the product works, what physical or chemical principles are essential to its operation, and so on. For example, you will see considerable background in user guides for graphic or audio programs—you can't operate them without understanding the concepts of brightness, saturation, and hue; mu law, A law, and other such.
Examples of User Guides
Consider a few examples:
Delarina WinFax LITE User's Guide. This book is 5.5 × 8.5 inches and under 150 pages. It is uses by-chapter pagination, with new chapters and sections beginning on a righthand page.
Covers: On the front cover, you see the full book title, a version number, the company name with its logo, and warning that the book is not for retail sale. The back cover contains advertising material—rather atypical for user guides—on the product's best features, special offers on the full version, a 1-800 number to call, and the book number.
Title page: The first page inside this user guide is the title page, which includes the product name, the book title, the book edition number, the date of the edition, the company logo (which includes its name), several addresses for the company, and the not-for-retail-sale warning. The company name has a registered trademark symbol beside it; the product name has the trademark letters beside it. No trademark symbols are shown on the front or back covers.
Edition notice: On the back of the title page is the edition notice. This edition notice includes the book title, a copyright notice, legal statements concerning copying the book, list of trademarked product names occurring in the book, and the document number.
License agreement: On the next page is the software agreement, a two-page thing that outlines permitted uses of the software and related warranties.
Table of content: The TOC begins on a righthand page numbered "i" and lists up to level of headings within the chapters.
Headers and footers: The book title is used for both the left and right footers: on the left-page, the title is right-aligned; on the right-page, the title is left-aligned. The page number appears opposite of both footers, and a solid ruled line is placed just above both footers. The chapter title is used for the inside header on each page; the current heading is used for the outside header on each page. A solid ruled line is placed just beneath these headers.
Preface: The Overview which is treated as chapter 1. It contains some promotion of the product, a diagram of the product's many uses, hardware and software requirements on its use, an overview of the manual contents, and instructions on how to get help.
Body chapters: Chapters use the following design features:
o Chapter title — Large bold Arial letters with the chapter title on the left margin and the chapter number on the right and a double ruled line below.
o Headings — First-level headings are about 1 point smaller than chapter titles, left aligned, with a solid ruled line just below. Second-level headings are about 2 points smaller, left aligned, with no ruled line. Third-level headings are the same size as body text but use bold-italic Arial and are placed on the left margin.
o Text — Body text is a serif font about 10 points in size. This manual does not use hanging-head format; text extends to the same left margin as do headings.
o Graphics — numerous screen captures are used through the book; they are all centered.
o Lists — Numbered lists are used for items in sequence such as steps. Open squares are used for bulleted items that have a subhead. otherwise standard filled disks are used as bullets.
o Highlighting — Text that users must type uses a sans serif type (probably Arial) as do screen buttons, options, field names, and system messages. Bold is used for simple emphasis.
o Notices — Only notes and hints are used. The word "Note:" or "Hint" uses bold-italics. The text of the notice is regular body font indented an inch.
o Appendixes — The book ends with two appendixes: Appendix A addresses common problems with a situation/solution format; Appendix B addresses fonts. These pages are numbered A-1, A-2, . . . B-1, B-2, and so on.
o Index — The book ends with a 10-page index whose page are numbered with lowercase roman numerals starting at i. The index uses the standard but does something unusual with entries. It uses a table-of-contents format for the entries and their page references, connecting them with the sort of leader dots you'd see in TOCs.
IBM Aptiva Reference Guide. This book is also 8.5 × 5.5 inches. It is uses consecutive page numbering throughout the book and is about 120 pages long.
Covers: The front cover has a graphic design with stylized numbered 1, 2, and 3 along with large grid pattern and various sorts of shading. The three elements of the book title are placed at the top, upper third and bottom of the area, respectively. You also see the words "information," "getting help," and "troubleshooting" seems to float between the second and third title elements, giving readers a more detailed sense of the book's contents. The back cover continues the grid pattern and includes the IBM logo with the part number of the book, its print date, a statement that the bopok was printed in th e"USA" and a bar code for the book number.
Title page: This page contains the words "Aptiva Reference Guide" is large serif letter in the upper right of the page—and that's it!
Edition notice: The edition notice occurs on the back of the title page. It is pushed to the bottom of the page and uses a smaller type size, probably 7-point, for its body text. The heading for the edition notice is the edition number followed by the month and year of th edition. The paragraphs of the edition notice states that the book is provided "as is" without any warranty, that the book is for multiple models of the product and that portions of it may not refer to the reader's own particular model. Also included are an address where comments can be sent, a 1-800 number to request additional copies, and the standard copyright line.
Table of contents: The TOC is an unusual design in which all entries are left aligned in the center of the page, with the page numbers to the left about an inch. First-level entries use bold. TOC begins on page iii.
Notices section: The first body section of this manual is for notices—specifically, trademarks, highlighting conventions used in the book, safety notices, and regulatory (communications) notices. The section begins with its own title page on which is displayed the word "Notices" in a large serif font in the upper right corner and with a grid/shading design similar to that on the front cover. The text of the notices section begins on a right-hand page as does the chapter title page.
Body text: Here are the key design features of the body text:
o Text — Text for this book is indented nearly 2 inches. Body text is a rather small sans serif font, probably Helvetica, probably 9 or 10 points. The hanging-head format is used.
o Headings — First-level headings align to to the far left margin, use a blocky bold sans serif font with a solid ruled line above. Chapter titles use a large gray serif font in the upper right corner of the first page of the chapter. Second-level heading align with body text, use sentence-style caps (as do first-level headings) and use the same font as do first-level headings but about 2 points smaller.
o Highlighting — In stepwise instructions, the following elements are bold: buttons, tabs, menu options, menu names, keyboard key names, icon names, parameter settings. Names of disks supplied with the product are in italics. System messages are in regular roman and double quotation marks.
o Steps — Instructions sequences are introduced with a gerund-phrased heading in the block bold font. Substeps or alternate subtasks use infinitive phrasing with the same font but smaller and are punctuated with a colon. Actual steps use a number in the same smaller font with out a period.
Headers and footers: Only footers are used. Bold page numbers (using the same font as the first-level heading but much smaller) are on the outside; the current heading, not chapter title, is centered and in a serif italics font using sentence-style caps.
Special notices: This book uses a light gray box with a white checkmark in it to call attention to special notices. the text of the special notices is the same as the footers: small italic serif font. Usually, the checkmark box is located on the far left margin and the notice text is aligned to the normal body text. Where possible, the checkmark box and the notice text is in the open area between the far left margin and the body text.
Troubleshooting section: The body of this section begin with a flowchart that must be meant to orient a user to the overall process of troubleshooting and to the different troubleshooting resources available. The next section consists of common questions with actions to take depending on yes or no answers. The text of the actions is bulleted or numbered depending on the content and contains cross-references to other areas of the troubleshooting information. The next section is designed in two columns, the left column with the heading "If the problem is.” and the right column with the heading "Here's what to do..." The problem statement in the left column is in bold. the next section is similar except that it lists error codes that are displayed on the computer and actions to take.
Index: The book has a 6-page index formatted in 3 column. Two levels of index entries are used. The page references are set about a half inch away from the text entries.
Process and Internal Documents for User Guides
An important part of user guides—in fact, of almost any technical document—is the process that produces it:
Initial planning—Early planning on a user guide involves needs assessment (is any documentation needed at all?), audience analysis (who will be using the user guide; what are their needs?), task analysis (what will users use the product for; what are their common tasks?), library plan (what books, in addition to a user guide, are needed to support the product?), and so on.
Documentation proposal—If you are working freelance or as part of an independent documentation firm, you may have to write a proposal in an effort to win a contract to do a certain technical documentation project.
Documentation plan—User guides need documentation plans, which are internal supporting documents that specify content, audience, design, format, production team members, schedule, and other such information about a documentation project and its "deliverables." The documentation plan resembles the documentation proposal in certain ways, but the plan represents an established plan agreed upon by everybody involved in the production process (and that means both the user guide and the product it documents).
Prototype and specifications—Important planning tools, which also serve as useful reference tools during a documentation project, include the prototype of the user guide and the specifications for the user guide. The prototype is a dummy version of the book with all planned components of the book (see the list on book-design components) and all planned elements (see the list under format and style). However, the prototype uses "greeked" text (also known as Lorem ipsum like the following, instead of real text:
Typically, the prototype of the user guide is very brief: it need include only as many pages as it takes to illustrate every unique textual component and textual element that will be used in the user guide. Specifications are descriptions of a book design in table form. Specifications describe every unique component or element of a book, so that it can be recreated by someone who might not have access to the electronic files, templates or styles of that book.
Template and style catalog—A well-designed user guide, and a well-designed process to produce that user guide, should include templates and style catalogs. A template is an electronic file that defines such aspects of the user guide as page size, headers and footers, page-numbering style, regular and special page layout, and other such detail. A style catalog is also an electronic thing that defines the format and style of textual elements such as headings, headers, footers, lists, paragraphs, tables, and so on. For example, a style for a "heading 1" might specify 24-point Arial bold with 24 picas above and 12 picas below. Styles help you create a user guide more efficiently; styles also help you maintain consistency in the format and style of that user guide.
Multiple review drafts & sign-off—A good process for the production of a user guide also includes several drafts that editors, technical experts, usability testers, and documentation team members can review and provide comments on. You as writer then implement those comments and produce a new draft for these same people to review again. When everybody is satisfied with the draft of the user guide (or worn out or out of time), they sign off on the user guide, and it can then go into "production," which means producing the finished bound copies.
As you can see, a user guide brings together many of the topics covered in this online textbook. If you are taking a technical writing course, you probably cannot implement all these features and phases of a user guide. Get with your instructor to see which are required.
Writing Skills
Welcome to…
The Writing Skills
This is designed to help you:
• identify the key problems that young non-native learners
have with writing in English
• research methodology and approaches to developing the
writing skill
• find and share interesting activities to develop writing skills
and sub-skills in the classroom
• become familiar with some useful teaching resource sites
First of all you are going to look at some examples of learners’
writing on the internet and identify the key areas that the
learners need to work on. You will then research these problems
and look for ideas and activities that help with these problem
areas on the net. Finally, you will share what you have found with
the rest of your class in a poster presentation.
1. Introduction
Think back to your days at school and discuss the
questions in the pink box with a partner.
Your answers should help you think about why writing is often the most
problematic skill for learners of a second or foreign language.
Now go to the websites below and look at the written
work that some teenage learners of English have posted.
Discuss the writing skill strengths and weaknesses that
these learners have.
1. How did you feel about writing?
2. What sort of things did you like writing / dislike about
writing activities?
3. What problems do you remember having? Why?
4. How do you think students feel about writing in English?
2. Task
Read through the instructions for the task and check
you understand everything.
Step 1:
Work in groups of five. You are going to decide on a ‘top five’ of writing
problems and write them on the form below.
Step 2:
See how many of the problems you chose are the same as the ones in the
yellow box.
Step 3: Choose one of the problems in the yellow box and see what you
can find out about it at the sites in the orange box.
Step 4: Team up with someone in another group who researched the same
problem area you did. Compare notes.
Step 5: Work with the same partner. Look at the sites in the green box.
Find and choose at least four useful writing activities that will help your
students overcome the problem you chose.
Step 6: Make a poster about the writing problem and writing activities
you chose.
Step 7: Go back to your original group. Present your poster to the group
and try out some of the writing activities.
3.Process
1 Decide on your 5 ideas for writing problems. Add them
to the board below.
2 Now compare your list with the one in the yellow
box.
3 Now choose one of the problems in the yellow box and
look at the relevant website to find advice or information
about it.
• Spelling: The fact that English is not phonetic leads to spelling problems.
Most learners are able to memorise consonants in words, but often use
incorrect vowels, incorrect word endings and forget to add silent letters
(consonants).
• Using correct language (word order, syntax and grammar): Students
often translate directly from their own language and forget that most simple
English sentences use the SVO pattern. Pronouns, plurals, prepositions and
articles are frequently used incorrectly.
• Forming paragraphs: Students may only write short sentences and lack
confidence to write at paragraph level..
• Organising ideas logically: When students do write longer texts, they may
not organize their ideas properly into paragraphs.
• Lack of ideas and opinions: Schools often encourage students to memorise
texts and then write them out in the exam. Students who go on to study at
English medium Universities often find it difficult because they are
expected to write using their own ideas.
4 Compare what you found out with what someone in the
other group discovered. What sort of activities will help
with this problem?
5 Look at some of the sites in the green box. Find and
choose at least four useful writing activities that will
help your students overcome the problem you chose.
General
6 Make a poster about the writing problem and writing
activities you chose. Go to the web site below for ideas
on how to structure your presentation.
3. Evaluation:
1 Go back to your original group. Present your poster to the
group and try out some of the writing activities. Try to write a
suggestion for each row on the grid below.
Problem Practice activity
Spelling
Correct Language
Forming paragraphs
Organising ideas
Lack of ideas
2 Complete the assessment questionnaire
Which websites did you find
the most helpful?
Which writing activities would
you like to try using with your
classes?
What did you like about the
other presentations you saw?
What was successful in your
own presentation?
What could be adapted, added
or left out?
The Writing Skills
This is designed to help you:
• identify the key problems that young non-native learners
have with writing in English
• research methodology and approaches to developing the
writing skill
• find and share interesting activities to develop writing skills
and sub-skills in the classroom
• become familiar with some useful teaching resource sites
First of all you are going to look at some examples of learners’
writing on the internet and identify the key areas that the
learners need to work on. You will then research these problems
and look for ideas and activities that help with these problem
areas on the net. Finally, you will share what you have found with
the rest of your class in a poster presentation.
1. Introduction
Think back to your days at school and discuss the
questions in the pink box with a partner.
Your answers should help you think about why writing is often the most
problematic skill for learners of a second or foreign language.
Now go to the websites below and look at the written
work that some teenage learners of English have posted.
Discuss the writing skill strengths and weaknesses that
these learners have.
1. How did you feel about writing?
2. What sort of things did you like writing / dislike about
writing activities?
3. What problems do you remember having? Why?
4. How do you think students feel about writing in English?
2. Task
Read through the instructions for the task and check
you understand everything.
Step 1:
Work in groups of five. You are going to decide on a ‘top five’ of writing
problems and write them on the form below.
Step 2:
See how many of the problems you chose are the same as the ones in the
yellow box.
Step 3: Choose one of the problems in the yellow box and see what you
can find out about it at the sites in the orange box.
Step 4: Team up with someone in another group who researched the same
problem area you did. Compare notes.
Step 5: Work with the same partner. Look at the sites in the green box.
Find and choose at least four useful writing activities that will help your
students overcome the problem you chose.
Step 6: Make a poster about the writing problem and writing activities
you chose.
Step 7: Go back to your original group. Present your poster to the group
and try out some of the writing activities.
3.Process
1 Decide on your 5 ideas for writing problems. Add them
to the board below.
2 Now compare your list with the one in the yellow
box.
3 Now choose one of the problems in the yellow box and
look at the relevant website to find advice or information
about it.
• Spelling: The fact that English is not phonetic leads to spelling problems.
Most learners are able to memorise consonants in words, but often use
incorrect vowels, incorrect word endings and forget to add silent letters
(consonants).
• Using correct language (word order, syntax and grammar): Students
often translate directly from their own language and forget that most simple
English sentences use the SVO pattern. Pronouns, plurals, prepositions and
articles are frequently used incorrectly.
• Forming paragraphs: Students may only write short sentences and lack
confidence to write at paragraph level..
• Organising ideas logically: When students do write longer texts, they may
not organize their ideas properly into paragraphs.
• Lack of ideas and opinions: Schools often encourage students to memorise
texts and then write them out in the exam. Students who go on to study at
English medium Universities often find it difficult because they are
expected to write using their own ideas.
4 Compare what you found out with what someone in the
other group discovered. What sort of activities will help
with this problem?
5 Look at some of the sites in the green box. Find and
choose at least four useful writing activities that will
help your students overcome the problem you chose.
General
6 Make a poster about the writing problem and writing
activities you chose. Go to the web site below for ideas
on how to structure your presentation.
3. Evaluation:
1 Go back to your original group. Present your poster to the
group and try out some of the writing activities. Try to write a
suggestion for each row on the grid below.
Problem Practice activity
Spelling
Correct Language
Forming paragraphs
Organising ideas
Lack of ideas
2 Complete the assessment questionnaire
Which websites did you find
the most helpful?
Which writing activities would
you like to try using with your
classes?
What did you like about the
other presentations you saw?
What was successful in your
own presentation?
What could be adapted, added
or left out?
Thursday, March 13, 2008
LearningTheories In Instructional Design
The History of Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism in Instructional Design
Behaviorism and Instructional Design
** This section on behaviorism is largely a synopsis of information from Paul Saettler's book, The History of American Educational Technology, (1990).
In Paul Saettler's book The History of American Educational Technology, he states that behaviorism did not have an impact on educational technology until the 1960s, which was the time that behaviorism actually began to decrease in popularity in American psychology. Saettler identified six areas that demonstrate the impact of behaviorism on Educational Technology in America: the behavioral objectives movement; the teaching machine phase; the programmed instruction movement; individualized instructional approaches, computer-assisted learning and the systems approach to instruction.
Behavioral Objectives Movement:
A behavioral objective states learning objectives in "specified, quantifiable, terminal behaviors" (Saettler, pp. 288, 1990). Behavioral objectives can be summed up using the mnemonic device ABCD (Schwier, 1998).
Example: After having completed the unit the student will be able to answer correctly 90% of the questions on the posttest.
A - Audience - the student
B - Behavior - answer correctly
C - Condition - after having completed the unit, on a post test
D - Degree - 90% correct
To develop behavioral objectives a learning task must be broken down through analysis into specific measurable tasks. The learning success may be measured by tests developed to measure each objective.
The advent of behavioral objectives can be traced back to the Elder Sophists of ancient Greece, Cicero, Herbart and Spencer, but Franklin Bobbitt developed the modern concept of behavioral objectives in the early 1900s (Saettler, 1990).
Taxonomic Analysis of Learning Behaviors
Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - In 1956 Bloom and his colleagues began development of a taxonomy in the cognitive, attitudinal (affective) and psychomotor domains. Many people are familiar with Bloom's Cognitive taxonomy:
knowledge
comprehension
application
analysis
synthesis
evaluation
Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning - Robert Gagne developed his taxonomy of learning in 1972. Gagne's taxonomy was comprised of five categories:
verbal information
intellectual skill
cognitive strategy
attitude
motor skill
Mastery Learning
Mastery learning was originally developed by Morrison in the 1930s. His formula for mastery was "Pretest, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test again to the point of actual learning." (Morrison, 1931, in Saettler, 1990). Mastery learning assumes that all students can master the materials presented in the lesson. Bloom further developed Morrison's plan, but mastery learning is more effective for the lower levels of learning on Bloom's taxonomy, and not appropriate for higher level learning (Saettler, 1990).
Military and Industrial Approach
For military and industrial training, "behavioral objectives were written descriptions of specific, terminal behaviors that were manifested in terms of observable, measurable behavior." (Saettler, 1990) Robert Mager wrote Preparing Instructional Objectives, in 1962 which prompted interest and use of behavioral objectives among educators. Gagne and Briggs who also had backgrounds in military and industrial psychology developed a set of instructions for writing objectives that is based on Mager's work.
Gagne's and Brigg's Model
Action
Object
Situation
Tools and Constraints
Capability to be Learned
By the late 1960's most teachers were writing and using behavioral objectives. There were, of course, people who questioned the breaking down of subject material into small parts, believing that it would lead away from an understanding of the "whole" (Saettler, 1990).
Accountability Movement
A movement known as scientific management of industry arose in the early 1900s in response to political and economic factors of that time. Franklin Bobbitt proposed utilization of this system in education stressing that the standards and direction of education should stem from the consumer - society. Bobbitt's ideas exemplified the idea of accountability, competency-based education and performance-based education, which because of similar economic and political factors, experienced a revival in America during the late 1960s and 1970s (Saettler, 1990).
Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction Movement
Although the elder Sophists, Comenius, Herbart and Montessori used the concept of programmed instruction in their repertoire, B.F. Skinner is the most current and probably best known advocate of teaching machines and programmed learning. Contributors to this movement include the following:
Pressey - introduced a multiple-choice machine at the 1925 American Psychological Association meeting.
Peterson - a former student of Pressey's who developed "chemosheets" in which the learner checked their answers with a chemical-dipped swab.
W.W.II - devises called "phase checks", constructed in the 1940s and 1950s, taught and tested such skills and dissassembly-assembly of equipment.
Crowder - designed a branched style of programming for the US Air force in the 1950s to train troubleshooters to find malfunctions in electronic equipment.
Skinner - based on operant conditioning Skinner's teaching machine required the learner to complete or answer a question and then receive feedback on the correctness of the response. Skinner demonstrated his machine in 1954.(Saettler, 1990)
Early Use of Programmed Instruction
After experimental use of programmed instruction in the 1920s and 1930s, B. F. Skinner and J.G. Holland first used programmed instruction in behavioral psychology courses at Harvard in the late 1950s. Use of programmed instruction appeared in elementary and secondary schools around the same time. Much of the programmed instruction in American schools was used with individuals or small groups of students and was more often used in junior high schools than senior or elementary schools (Saettler, 1990).
Early use of programmed instruction tended to concentrate on the development of hardware rather than course content. Concerned developers moved away from hardware development to programs based on analysis of learning and instruction based on learning theory. Despite these changes, programmed learning died out in the later part of the 1960s because it did not appear to live up to its original claims (Saettler, 1990).
Individualized Approaches to Instruction
Similar to programmed learning and teaching machines individualized instruction began in the early 1900s, and was revived in the 1960s. The Keller Plan, Individually Prescribed Instruction, Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs, and Individually Guided Education are all examples of individualized instruction in the U.S. (Saettler, 1990).
Keller Plan (1963)
Developed by F.S. Keller, a colleague of Skinner, the Keller plan was used for university college classes.
Main features of Keller Plan
individually paced.
mastery learning.
lectures and demonstrations motivational rather than critical information.
use of proctors which permitted testing, immediate scoring, tutoring, personal-social aspect of educational process.(Saettler, 1990)
Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI) (1964)
Developed by Learning Research and Development Center of the University of Pitsburgh.
Lasted into the 1970s when it lost funding and its use dwindled
Main features of IPI:
prepared units.
behavioral objectives.
planned instructional sequences.
used for reading, math and science.
included pretest and posttest for each unit.
materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioral objectives.
(Saettler, 1990)
Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs (PLAN) (1967)
Headed by Jon C. Flanagan, PLAN was developed under sponsorship of American Institutes for Research (AIR), Westinghouse Learning Corporation and fourteen U.S. School districts.
Abandoned in late 1970s because of upgrading costs
Main features of PLAN
schools selected items from about 6,000 behavioral objectives.
each instructional module took about two weeks instruction and were made up of approximately. five objectives.
mastery learning.
remedial learning plus retesting.
(Saettler, 1990)
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Computer-assisted instruction was first used in education and training during the 1950s. Early work was done by IBM and such people as Gordon Pask, and O.M. Moore, but CAI grew rapidly in the 1960s when federal funding for research and development in education and industrial laboratories was implemented. The U.S. government wanted to determine the possible effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction, so they developed two competing companies, (Control Data Corporation and Mitre Corporation) who came up with the PLATO and TICCIT projects. Despite money and research, by the mid seventies it was apparent that CAI was not going to be the success that people had believed. Some of the reasons are:
CAI had been oversold and could not deliver.
lack of support from certain sectors.
technical problems in implementation.
lack of quality software.
high cost.
Computer-assisted instruction was very much drill-and-practice - controlled by the program developer rather than the learner. Little branching of instruction was implemented although TICCIT did allow the learner to determine the sequence of instruction or to skip certain topics.(Saettler, 1990)
Systems Approach to Instruction
The systems approach developed out of the 1950s and 1960s focus on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the use of the computer in instruction. Most systems approaches are similar to computer flow charts with steps that the designer moves through during the development of instruction. Rooted in the military and business world, the systems approach involved setting goals and objectives, analyzing resources, devising a plan of action and continuous evaluation/modification of the program. (Saettler, 1990)
Cognitivism and Instructional Design
Although cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s and began to take over as the dominant theory of learning, it wasn't until the late 1970s that cognitive science began to have its influence on instructional design. Cognitive science began a shift from behavioristic practices which emphasised external behavior, to a concern with the internal mental processes of the mind and how they could be utilized in promoting effective learning. The design models that had been developed in the behaviorist tradition were not simply tossed out, but instead the "task analysis" and "learner analysis" parts of the models were embellished. The new models addressed component processes of learning such as knowledge coding and representation, information storage and retrieval as well as the incorporation and integration of new knowledge with previous information (Saettler, 1990). Because Cognitivism and Behaviorism are both governed by an objective view of the nature of knowledge and what it means to know something, the transition from behavioral instructional design principles to those of a cognitive style was not entirely difficult. The goal of instruction remained the communication or transfer of knowledge to learners in the most efficient, effective manner possible (Bednar et al., in Anglin, 1995). For example, the breaking down of a task into small steps works for a behaviorist who is trying to find the most efficient and fail proof method of shaping a learner's behavior. The cognitive scientist would analyze a task, break it down into smaller steps or chunks and use that information to develop instruction that moves from simple to complex building on prior schema.
The influence of cognitive science in instructional design is evidenced by the use of advance organizers, mnemonic devices, metaphors, chunking into meaningful parts and the careful organization of instructional materials from simple to complex.
Cognitivism and Computer-Based Instruction
Computers process information in a similar fashion to how cognitive scientists believe humans process information: receive, store and retrieve. This analogy makes the possibility of programming a computer to "think" like a person conceivable, i.e.. artificial intelligence.
Artificial intelligence involve the computer working to supply appropriate responses to student input from the computer's data base. A trouble-shooting programs is one example of these programs. Below is a list of some programs and their intended use:
SCHOLAR - teaches facts about South American geography in a Socratic method
PUFF - diagnoses medical patients for possible pulmonary disorders
MYCIN - diagnoses blood infections and prescribes possible treatment
DENDRAL - enables a chemist to make an accurate guess about the molecular structure of an unknown compound
META-DENDRAL - makes up its own molecular fragmentation rules in an attempt to explain sets of basic data
GUIDION - a derivative of the MYCIN program that gave a student information about a case and compared their diagnosis with what MYCIN would suggest
SOPIE - helps engineers troubleshoot electronic equipment problems
BUGGY - allows teachers to diagnose causes for student mathematical errors
LOGO - designed to help children learn to program a computer
Davis' math programs for the PLATO system - to encourage mathematical development through discovery(Saettler, 1990)
Constructivism and Instructional Design
The shift of instructional design from behaviorism to cognitivism was not as dramatic as the move into constructivism appears to be, since behaviorism and cognitivism are both objective in nature. Behaviorism and cognitivism both support the practice of analyzing a task and breaking it down into manageable chunks, establishing objectives, and measuring performance based on those objectives. Constructivism, on the other hand, promotes a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner.
While behaviorism and constructivism are very different theoretical perspectives, cognitivism shares some similarities with constructivism. An example of their compatibility is the fact that they share the analogy of comparing the processes of the mind to that of a computer. Consider the following statement by Perkins:
"...information processing models have spawned the computer model of the mind as an information processor. Constructivism has added that this information processor must be seen as not just shuffling data, but wielding it flexibly during learning -- making hypotheses, testing tentative interpretations, and so on." (Perkins, 1991, p.21 in Schwier, 1998 ).
Other examples of the link between cognitive theory and constructivism are:
schema theory (Spiro, et al, 1991, in Schwier, 1998)
connectionism (Bereiter, 1991, in Schwier, 1998)
hypermedia (Tolhurst, 1992, in Schwier, 1998)
multimedia (Dede, 1992, in Schwier, 1998)
Despite these similarities between cognitivism and constructivism, the objective side of cognitivism supported the use of models to be used in the systems approach of instructional design. Constructivism is not compatible with the present systems approach to instructional design, as Jonassen points out :
"The conundrum that constructivism poses for instructional designers, however, is that if each individual is responsible for knowledge construction, how can we as designers determine and insure a common set of outcomes for leaning, as we have been taught to do?" (Jonasson, [On-line])
In the same article, Jonassen (Jonasson, [On-line]) lists the following implications of constructivism for instructional design:
"...purposeful knowledge construction may be facilitated by learning environments which:
Provide multiple representations of reality - avoid oversimplification of instruction by by representing the natural complexity of the world
Present authentic tasks - contextualize
Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequences
Foster reflective practice
Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction
Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition
"Although we believe that constructivism is not a prescriptive theory of instruction, it should be possible to provide more explicit guidelines on how to design learning environments that foster constructivist learning"
Jonassen points out that the difference between constructivist and objectivist, (behavioral and cognitive), instructional design is that objective design has a predetermined outcome and intervenes in the learning process to map a pre-determined concept of reality into the learner's mind, while constructivism maintains that because learning outcomes are not always predictable, instruction should foster, not control, learning. With this in mind, Jonassen looks at the commonalties among constructivist approaches to learning to suggest a "model" for designing constructivist learning environments.
"...a constructivist design process should be concerned with designing environments which support the construction of knowledge, which ..."
Is Based on Internal Negotiation
a process of articulating mental models, using those models to explain, predict, and infer, and reflecting on their utility (Piaget's accommodation, Norman and Rumelhart's tuning and restructuring.)
Is Based on Social Negotiation
a process of sharing a reality with others using the same or similar processes to those used in internal negotiation
Is Facilitated by Exploration of Real World Environments and Intervention of New Environments
processes that are regulated by each individual's intentions, needs, and/or expectations
Results in Mental Models and provides Meaningful, Authentic Contexts for Learning and Using the Constructed Knowledge
should be supported by case-based problems which have been derived from and situated in the real world with all of its uncertainty and complexity and based on authentic realife practice
Requires an Understanding of its Own Thinking Process and Problem Solving Methods
problems in one context are different from problems in other contexts
Modeled for Learners by Skilled Performers but Not Necessarily Expert Performers
Requires Collaboration Among Learners and With the Teacher
the teacher is more of a coach or mentor than a purveyor of knowledge
Provides an Intellectual Toolkit to Facilitate an Internal Negotiation Necessary for Building Mental Models(Jonasson, [On-line])
The technological advances of the 1980s and 1990s have enabled designers to move toward a moreconstructivist approach to design of instruction. One of the most useful tools for the constructivist designer is hypertext and hypermedia because it allows for a branched design rather than a linear format of instruction. Hyperlinks allow for learner control which is crucial to constructivist learning; however, there is some concerns over the novice learner becoming "lost" in a sea of hypermedia. To address this concern, Jonassen and McAlleese (Jonnassen & McAlleese, [On-line]) note that each phase of knowledge acquisition requires different types of learning and that initial knowledge acquisition is perhaps best served by classical instruction with predetermined learning outcomes, sequenced instructional interaction and criterion-referenced evaluation while the more advanced second phase of knowledge acquisition is more suited to a constructivist environment.
If a novice learner is unable to establish an "anchor" in a hypermedia environment they may wander aimlessly through hypermedia becoming completely disoriented. Reigeluth and Chung suggest a prescriptive system which advocates increased learner control. In this method, students have some background knowledge and have been given some instruction in developing their own metacognitive strategies and have some way to return along the path they have taken, should they become "lost". (Davidson, 1998)
Most literature on constructivist design suggests that learners should not simply be let loose in a hypermedia or hypertext environment, but that a mix of old and new (objective and constructive) instruction/learning design be implemented. Davidson's (1998) article, suggesting a criteria for hypermedia learning based on an "exploration of relevant learning theories", is an example of this method.
Having noted the eclectic nature of instructional design, it is only fair to point out that not all theorists advocate a "mix and match" strategy for instructional design. Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy and Perry wrote an article that challenges the eclectic nature if instructional systems design by pointing out that "...abstracting concepts and strategies from the theoretical position that spawned then strips them of their meaning." They question objectivist epistemology completely and have adopted what they consider a constructivist approach to instructional design. In the article they compare the traditional approaches of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation to that of a constructivist approach. (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy & Perry, 1995)
Learning Theories and the Practice of Instructional Design
What is the difference between the learning theories in terms of the practice of instructional design? Is one approach more easily achieved than another? To address this, one may consider that cognitive theory is the dominant theory in instructional design and many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by behaviorists are also used by cognitivists, but for different reasons. For example, behaviorists assess learners to determine a starting point for instruction, while cognitivists look at the learner to determine their predisposition to learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). With this in mind, the practice of instructional design can be viewed from a behaviorist/cognitivist approach as opposed to a constructivist approach.
When designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist stance, the designer analyzes the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed. Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "world".
To design from a constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product that is much more facilitative in nature than prescriptive. The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner. The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals. (Assessment [On-line])
Because of the divergent, subjective nature of constructive learning, it is easier for a designer to work from the systems, and thus the objective approach to instructional design. That is not to say that classical instructional design techniques are better than constructive design, but it is easier, less time consuming and most likely less expensive to design within a "closed system" rather than an "open" one. Perhaps there is some truth in the statement that "Constructivism is a 'learning theory', more than a 'teaching approach'." (Wilkinson, 1995)
Learning Theories - Some Strengths and Weaknesses
What are the perceived strengths and weaknesses of using certain theoretical approaches to instructional design?
Behaviorism
Weakness -the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. - A worker who has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops production when an anomaly occurs because they do not understand the system.
Strength - the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues of that goal. - W.W.II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy planes, a response which one would hope became automatic.
Cognitivism
Weakness - the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best way, or suited to the learner or the situation. For example, logging onto the internet on one computer may not be the same as logging in on another computer.
Strength - the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency. - Logging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees; it may be important do an exact routine to avoid problems.
Constructivism
Weakness - in a situation where conformity is essential divergent thinking and action may cause problems. Imagine the fun Revenue Canada would have if every person decided to report their taxes in their own way - although, there probably are some very "constructive" approaches used within the system we have.
Strength - because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better able to deal with real life situations. If a learner can problem solve, they may better apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation.(Schuman, 1996)
Is There One Best Learning Theory for Instructional Design?
Why bother with Theory at all?
A solid foundation in learning theory is an essential element in the preparation of ISD professionals because it permeates all dimensions of ISD (Shiffman, 1995). Depending on the learners and situation, different learning theories may apply. The instructional designer must understand the strengths and weaknesses of each learning theory to optimize their use in appropriate instructional design strategy. Recipes contained in ID theories may have value for novice designers (Wilson, 1997), who lack the experience and expertise of veteran designers. Theories are useful because they open our eyes to other possibilities and ways of seeing the world. Whether we realize it or not, the best design decisions are most certainly based on our knowledge of learning theories.
An Eclectic Approach to Theory in Instructional Design
The function of ID is more of an application of theory, rather than a theory itself. Trying to tie Instructional Design to one particular theory is like school vs. the real world. What we learn in a school environment does not always match what is out there in the real world, just as the prescriptions of theory do not always apply in practice, (the real world). From a pragmatic point of view, instructional designers find what works and use it.
What Works and How Can We Use It?
Behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism - what works where and how do we knit everything together to at least give ourselves some focus in our approach to instructional design? First of all we do not need to abandon the systems approach but we must modify it to accommodate constructivist values. We must allow circumstances surrounding the learning situation to help us decide which approach to learning is most appropriate. It is necessary to realize that some learning problems require highly prescriptive solutions, whereas others are more suited to learner control of the environment. (Schwier, 1995)
Jonnassen in Manifesto for a Constructive Approach to Technology in Higher Education ([On-line]) identified the following types of learning and matched them with what he believes to be appropriate learning theory approaches.
1. Introductory Learning - learners have very little directly transferable prior knowledge about a skill or content area. They are at the initial stages of schema assembly and integration. At this stage classical instructional design is most suitable because it is predetermined, constrained, sequential and criterion-referenced. The learner can develop some anchors for further exploration.
2. Advanced Knowledge Acquisition - follows introductory knowledge and precedes expert knowledge. At this point constructivist approaches may be introduced.
3. Expertise is the final stage of knowledge acquisition. In this stage the learner is able to make intelligent decisions within the learning environment. A constructivist approach would work well in this case.
Having pointed out the different levels of learning, Jonassen stresses that it is still important to consider the context before recommending any specific methodology.
Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory which organizes instruction in increasing order of complexity and moves from prerequisite learning to learner control may work in the eclectic approach to instructional design, since the learner can be introduced to the main concepts of a course and then move on to more of a self directed study that is meaningful to them and their particular context.
After having compared and contrasted behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism, Ertmer and Newby (1993) feel that the instructional approach used for novice learners may not be efficiently stimulating for a learner who is familiar with the content. They do not advocate one single learning theory, but stress that instructional strategy and content addressed depend on the level of the learners. Similar to Jonassen, they match learning theories with the content to be learned:
... a behavioral approach can effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a
profession (knowing what); cognitive strategies are useful in teaching problem-solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations(knowing how); and constructivist strategies are especially suited to dealing withill-defined problems through reflection-in-action. (Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993)
Behavioral
... tasks requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations,discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by strategies mostfrequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus-response, contiguityof feedback/reinforcement).
Cognitive
Tasks requiring an increased level of processing (e.g., classifications, rule orprocedural executions) are primarily associated with strategieshaving a stronger cognitive emphasis (e.g., schematic organization, analogicalreasoning, algorithmic problem solving).
ConstructiveTasks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving,personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies) are frequently
est learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g.,situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation.
Behaviorism and Instructional Design
** This section on behaviorism is largely a synopsis of information from Paul Saettler's book, The History of American Educational Technology, (1990).
In Paul Saettler's book The History of American Educational Technology, he states that behaviorism did not have an impact on educational technology until the 1960s, which was the time that behaviorism actually began to decrease in popularity in American psychology. Saettler identified six areas that demonstrate the impact of behaviorism on Educational Technology in America: the behavioral objectives movement; the teaching machine phase; the programmed instruction movement; individualized instructional approaches, computer-assisted learning and the systems approach to instruction.
Behavioral Objectives Movement:
A behavioral objective states learning objectives in "specified, quantifiable, terminal behaviors" (Saettler, pp. 288, 1990). Behavioral objectives can be summed up using the mnemonic device ABCD (Schwier, 1998).
Example: After having completed the unit the student will be able to answer correctly 90% of the questions on the posttest.
A - Audience - the student
B - Behavior - answer correctly
C - Condition - after having completed the unit, on a post test
D - Degree - 90% correct
To develop behavioral objectives a learning task must be broken down through analysis into specific measurable tasks. The learning success may be measured by tests developed to measure each objective.
The advent of behavioral objectives can be traced back to the Elder Sophists of ancient Greece, Cicero, Herbart and Spencer, but Franklin Bobbitt developed the modern concept of behavioral objectives in the early 1900s (Saettler, 1990).
Taxonomic Analysis of Learning Behaviors
Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning - In 1956 Bloom and his colleagues began development of a taxonomy in the cognitive, attitudinal (affective) and psychomotor domains. Many people are familiar with Bloom's Cognitive taxonomy:
knowledge
comprehension
application
analysis
synthesis
evaluation
Gagne's Taxonomy of Learning - Robert Gagne developed his taxonomy of learning in 1972. Gagne's taxonomy was comprised of five categories:
verbal information
intellectual skill
cognitive strategy
attitude
motor skill
Mastery Learning
Mastery learning was originally developed by Morrison in the 1930s. His formula for mastery was "Pretest, teach, test the result, adapt procedure, teach and test again to the point of actual learning." (Morrison, 1931, in Saettler, 1990). Mastery learning assumes that all students can master the materials presented in the lesson. Bloom further developed Morrison's plan, but mastery learning is more effective for the lower levels of learning on Bloom's taxonomy, and not appropriate for higher level learning (Saettler, 1990).
Military and Industrial Approach
For military and industrial training, "behavioral objectives were written descriptions of specific, terminal behaviors that were manifested in terms of observable, measurable behavior." (Saettler, 1990) Robert Mager wrote Preparing Instructional Objectives, in 1962 which prompted interest and use of behavioral objectives among educators. Gagne and Briggs who also had backgrounds in military and industrial psychology developed a set of instructions for writing objectives that is based on Mager's work.
Gagne's and Brigg's Model
Action
Object
Situation
Tools and Constraints
Capability to be Learned
By the late 1960's most teachers were writing and using behavioral objectives. There were, of course, people who questioned the breaking down of subject material into small parts, believing that it would lead away from an understanding of the "whole" (Saettler, 1990).
Accountability Movement
A movement known as scientific management of industry arose in the early 1900s in response to political and economic factors of that time. Franklin Bobbitt proposed utilization of this system in education stressing that the standards and direction of education should stem from the consumer - society. Bobbitt's ideas exemplified the idea of accountability, competency-based education and performance-based education, which because of similar economic and political factors, experienced a revival in America during the late 1960s and 1970s (Saettler, 1990).
Teaching Machines and Programmed Instruction Movement
Although the elder Sophists, Comenius, Herbart and Montessori used the concept of programmed instruction in their repertoire, B.F. Skinner is the most current and probably best known advocate of teaching machines and programmed learning. Contributors to this movement include the following:
Pressey - introduced a multiple-choice machine at the 1925 American Psychological Association meeting.
Peterson - a former student of Pressey's who developed "chemosheets" in which the learner checked their answers with a chemical-dipped swab.
W.W.II - devises called "phase checks", constructed in the 1940s and 1950s, taught and tested such skills and dissassembly-assembly of equipment.
Crowder - designed a branched style of programming for the US Air force in the 1950s to train troubleshooters to find malfunctions in electronic equipment.
Skinner - based on operant conditioning Skinner's teaching machine required the learner to complete or answer a question and then receive feedback on the correctness of the response. Skinner demonstrated his machine in 1954.(Saettler, 1990)
Early Use of Programmed Instruction
After experimental use of programmed instruction in the 1920s and 1930s, B. F. Skinner and J.G. Holland first used programmed instruction in behavioral psychology courses at Harvard in the late 1950s. Use of programmed instruction appeared in elementary and secondary schools around the same time. Much of the programmed instruction in American schools was used with individuals or small groups of students and was more often used in junior high schools than senior or elementary schools (Saettler, 1990).
Early use of programmed instruction tended to concentrate on the development of hardware rather than course content. Concerned developers moved away from hardware development to programs based on analysis of learning and instruction based on learning theory. Despite these changes, programmed learning died out in the later part of the 1960s because it did not appear to live up to its original claims (Saettler, 1990).
Individualized Approaches to Instruction
Similar to programmed learning and teaching machines individualized instruction began in the early 1900s, and was revived in the 1960s. The Keller Plan, Individually Prescribed Instruction, Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs, and Individually Guided Education are all examples of individualized instruction in the U.S. (Saettler, 1990).
Keller Plan (1963)
Developed by F.S. Keller, a colleague of Skinner, the Keller plan was used for university college classes.
Main features of Keller Plan
individually paced.
mastery learning.
lectures and demonstrations motivational rather than critical information.
use of proctors which permitted testing, immediate scoring, tutoring, personal-social aspect of educational process.(Saettler, 1990)
Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI) (1964)
Developed by Learning Research and Development Center of the University of Pitsburgh.
Lasted into the 1970s when it lost funding and its use dwindled
Main features of IPI:
prepared units.
behavioral objectives.
planned instructional sequences.
used for reading, math and science.
included pretest and posttest for each unit.
materials continually evaluated and upgraded to meet behavioral objectives.
(Saettler, 1990)
Program for Learning in Accordance with Needs (PLAN) (1967)
Headed by Jon C. Flanagan, PLAN was developed under sponsorship of American Institutes for Research (AIR), Westinghouse Learning Corporation and fourteen U.S. School districts.
Abandoned in late 1970s because of upgrading costs
Main features of PLAN
schools selected items from about 6,000 behavioral objectives.
each instructional module took about two weeks instruction and were made up of approximately. five objectives.
mastery learning.
remedial learning plus retesting.
(Saettler, 1990)
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Computer-assisted instruction was first used in education and training during the 1950s. Early work was done by IBM and such people as Gordon Pask, and O.M. Moore, but CAI grew rapidly in the 1960s when federal funding for research and development in education and industrial laboratories was implemented. The U.S. government wanted to determine the possible effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction, so they developed two competing companies, (Control Data Corporation and Mitre Corporation) who came up with the PLATO and TICCIT projects. Despite money and research, by the mid seventies it was apparent that CAI was not going to be the success that people had believed. Some of the reasons are:
CAI had been oversold and could not deliver.
lack of support from certain sectors.
technical problems in implementation.
lack of quality software.
high cost.
Computer-assisted instruction was very much drill-and-practice - controlled by the program developer rather than the learner. Little branching of instruction was implemented although TICCIT did allow the learner to determine the sequence of instruction or to skip certain topics.(Saettler, 1990)
Systems Approach to Instruction
The systems approach developed out of the 1950s and 1960s focus on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the use of the computer in instruction. Most systems approaches are similar to computer flow charts with steps that the designer moves through during the development of instruction. Rooted in the military and business world, the systems approach involved setting goals and objectives, analyzing resources, devising a plan of action and continuous evaluation/modification of the program. (Saettler, 1990)
Cognitivism and Instructional Design
Although cognitive psychology emerged in the late 1950s and began to take over as the dominant theory of learning, it wasn't until the late 1970s that cognitive science began to have its influence on instructional design. Cognitive science began a shift from behavioristic practices which emphasised external behavior, to a concern with the internal mental processes of the mind and how they could be utilized in promoting effective learning. The design models that had been developed in the behaviorist tradition were not simply tossed out, but instead the "task analysis" and "learner analysis" parts of the models were embellished. The new models addressed component processes of learning such as knowledge coding and representation, information storage and retrieval as well as the incorporation and integration of new knowledge with previous information (Saettler, 1990). Because Cognitivism and Behaviorism are both governed by an objective view of the nature of knowledge and what it means to know something, the transition from behavioral instructional design principles to those of a cognitive style was not entirely difficult. The goal of instruction remained the communication or transfer of knowledge to learners in the most efficient, effective manner possible (Bednar et al., in Anglin, 1995). For example, the breaking down of a task into small steps works for a behaviorist who is trying to find the most efficient and fail proof method of shaping a learner's behavior. The cognitive scientist would analyze a task, break it down into smaller steps or chunks and use that information to develop instruction that moves from simple to complex building on prior schema.
The influence of cognitive science in instructional design is evidenced by the use of advance organizers, mnemonic devices, metaphors, chunking into meaningful parts and the careful organization of instructional materials from simple to complex.
Cognitivism and Computer-Based Instruction
Computers process information in a similar fashion to how cognitive scientists believe humans process information: receive, store and retrieve. This analogy makes the possibility of programming a computer to "think" like a person conceivable, i.e.. artificial intelligence.
Artificial intelligence involve the computer working to supply appropriate responses to student input from the computer's data base. A trouble-shooting programs is one example of these programs. Below is a list of some programs and their intended use:
SCHOLAR - teaches facts about South American geography in a Socratic method
PUFF - diagnoses medical patients for possible pulmonary disorders
MYCIN - diagnoses blood infections and prescribes possible treatment
DENDRAL - enables a chemist to make an accurate guess about the molecular structure of an unknown compound
META-DENDRAL - makes up its own molecular fragmentation rules in an attempt to explain sets of basic data
GUIDION - a derivative of the MYCIN program that gave a student information about a case and compared their diagnosis with what MYCIN would suggest
SOPIE - helps engineers troubleshoot electronic equipment problems
BUGGY - allows teachers to diagnose causes for student mathematical errors
LOGO - designed to help children learn to program a computer
Davis' math programs for the PLATO system - to encourage mathematical development through discovery(Saettler, 1990)
Constructivism and Instructional Design
The shift of instructional design from behaviorism to cognitivism was not as dramatic as the move into constructivism appears to be, since behaviorism and cognitivism are both objective in nature. Behaviorism and cognitivism both support the practice of analyzing a task and breaking it down into manageable chunks, establishing objectives, and measuring performance based on those objectives. Constructivism, on the other hand, promotes a more open-ended learning experience where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may not be the same for each learner.
While behaviorism and constructivism are very different theoretical perspectives, cognitivism shares some similarities with constructivism. An example of their compatibility is the fact that they share the analogy of comparing the processes of the mind to that of a computer. Consider the following statement by Perkins:
"...information processing models have spawned the computer model of the mind as an information processor. Constructivism has added that this information processor must be seen as not just shuffling data, but wielding it flexibly during learning -- making hypotheses, testing tentative interpretations, and so on." (Perkins, 1991, p.21 in Schwier, 1998 ).
Other examples of the link between cognitive theory and constructivism are:
schema theory (Spiro, et al, 1991, in Schwier, 1998)
connectionism (Bereiter, 1991, in Schwier, 1998)
hypermedia (Tolhurst, 1992, in Schwier, 1998)
multimedia (Dede, 1992, in Schwier, 1998)
Despite these similarities between cognitivism and constructivism, the objective side of cognitivism supported the use of models to be used in the systems approach of instructional design. Constructivism is not compatible with the present systems approach to instructional design, as Jonassen points out :
"The conundrum that constructivism poses for instructional designers, however, is that if each individual is responsible for knowledge construction, how can we as designers determine and insure a common set of outcomes for leaning, as we have been taught to do?" (Jonasson, [On-line])
In the same article, Jonassen (Jonasson, [On-line]) lists the following implications of constructivism for instructional design:
"...purposeful knowledge construction may be facilitated by learning environments which:
Provide multiple representations of reality - avoid oversimplification of instruction by by representing the natural complexity of the world
Present authentic tasks - contextualize
Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined instructional sequences
Foster reflective practice
Enable context- and content-dependent knowledge construction
Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition
"Although we believe that constructivism is not a prescriptive theory of instruction, it should be possible to provide more explicit guidelines on how to design learning environments that foster constructivist learning"
Jonassen points out that the difference between constructivist and objectivist, (behavioral and cognitive), instructional design is that objective design has a predetermined outcome and intervenes in the learning process to map a pre-determined concept of reality into the learner's mind, while constructivism maintains that because learning outcomes are not always predictable, instruction should foster, not control, learning. With this in mind, Jonassen looks at the commonalties among constructivist approaches to learning to suggest a "model" for designing constructivist learning environments.
"...a constructivist design process should be concerned with designing environments which support the construction of knowledge, which ..."
Is Based on Internal Negotiation
a process of articulating mental models, using those models to explain, predict, and infer, and reflecting on their utility (Piaget's accommodation, Norman and Rumelhart's tuning and restructuring.)
Is Based on Social Negotiation
a process of sharing a reality with others using the same or similar processes to those used in internal negotiation
Is Facilitated by Exploration of Real World Environments and Intervention of New Environments
processes that are regulated by each individual's intentions, needs, and/or expectations
Results in Mental Models and provides Meaningful, Authentic Contexts for Learning and Using the Constructed Knowledge
should be supported by case-based problems which have been derived from and situated in the real world with all of its uncertainty and complexity and based on authentic realife practice
Requires an Understanding of its Own Thinking Process and Problem Solving Methods
problems in one context are different from problems in other contexts
Modeled for Learners by Skilled Performers but Not Necessarily Expert Performers
Requires Collaboration Among Learners and With the Teacher
the teacher is more of a coach or mentor than a purveyor of knowledge
Provides an Intellectual Toolkit to Facilitate an Internal Negotiation Necessary for Building Mental Models(Jonasson, [On-line])
The technological advances of the 1980s and 1990s have enabled designers to move toward a moreconstructivist approach to design of instruction. One of the most useful tools for the constructivist designer is hypertext and hypermedia because it allows for a branched design rather than a linear format of instruction. Hyperlinks allow for learner control which is crucial to constructivist learning; however, there is some concerns over the novice learner becoming "lost" in a sea of hypermedia. To address this concern, Jonassen and McAlleese (Jonnassen & McAlleese, [On-line]) note that each phase of knowledge acquisition requires different types of learning and that initial knowledge acquisition is perhaps best served by classical instruction with predetermined learning outcomes, sequenced instructional interaction and criterion-referenced evaluation while the more advanced second phase of knowledge acquisition is more suited to a constructivist environment.
If a novice learner is unable to establish an "anchor" in a hypermedia environment they may wander aimlessly through hypermedia becoming completely disoriented. Reigeluth and Chung suggest a prescriptive system which advocates increased learner control. In this method, students have some background knowledge and have been given some instruction in developing their own metacognitive strategies and have some way to return along the path they have taken, should they become "lost". (Davidson, 1998)
Most literature on constructivist design suggests that learners should not simply be let loose in a hypermedia or hypertext environment, but that a mix of old and new (objective and constructive) instruction/learning design be implemented. Davidson's (1998) article, suggesting a criteria for hypermedia learning based on an "exploration of relevant learning theories", is an example of this method.
Having noted the eclectic nature of instructional design, it is only fair to point out that not all theorists advocate a "mix and match" strategy for instructional design. Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy and Perry wrote an article that challenges the eclectic nature if instructional systems design by pointing out that "...abstracting concepts and strategies from the theoretical position that spawned then strips them of their meaning." They question objectivist epistemology completely and have adopted what they consider a constructivist approach to instructional design. In the article they compare the traditional approaches of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation to that of a constructivist approach. (Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy & Perry, 1995)
Learning Theories and the Practice of Instructional Design
What is the difference between the learning theories in terms of the practice of instructional design? Is one approach more easily achieved than another? To address this, one may consider that cognitive theory is the dominant theory in instructional design and many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by behaviorists are also used by cognitivists, but for different reasons. For example, behaviorists assess learners to determine a starting point for instruction, while cognitivists look at the learner to determine their predisposition to learning (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). With this in mind, the practice of instructional design can be viewed from a behaviorist/cognitivist approach as opposed to a constructivist approach.
When designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist stance, the designer analyzes the situation and sets a goal. Individual tasks are broken down and learning objectives are developed. Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the objectives has been met. In this approach the designer decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to transfer that knowledge to the learner. The learning package is somewhat of a closed system, since although it may allow for some branching and remediation, the learner is still confined to the designer's "world".
To design from a constructivist approach requires that the designer produces a product that is much more facilitative in nature than prescriptive. The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process and self-evaluation of the learner. The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes, early drafts, final products and journals. (Assessment [On-line])
Because of the divergent, subjective nature of constructive learning, it is easier for a designer to work from the systems, and thus the objective approach to instructional design. That is not to say that classical instructional design techniques are better than constructive design, but it is easier, less time consuming and most likely less expensive to design within a "closed system" rather than an "open" one. Perhaps there is some truth in the statement that "Constructivism is a 'learning theory', more than a 'teaching approach'." (Wilkinson, 1995)
Learning Theories - Some Strengths and Weaknesses
What are the perceived strengths and weaknesses of using certain theoretical approaches to instructional design?
Behaviorism
Weakness -the learner may find themselves in a situation where the stimulus for the correct response does not occur, therefore the learner cannot respond. - A worker who has been conditioned to respond to a certain cue at work stops production when an anomaly occurs because they do not understand the system.
Strength - the learner is focused on a clear goal and can respond automatically to the cues of that goal. - W.W.II pilots were conditioned to react to silhouettes of enemy planes, a response which one would hope became automatic.
Cognitivism
Weakness - the learner learns a way to accomplish a task, but it may not be the best way, or suited to the learner or the situation. For example, logging onto the internet on one computer may not be the same as logging in on another computer.
Strength - the goal is to train learners to do a task the same way to enable consistency. - Logging onto and off of a workplace computer is the same for all employees; it may be important do an exact routine to avoid problems.
Constructivism
Weakness - in a situation where conformity is essential divergent thinking and action may cause problems. Imagine the fun Revenue Canada would have if every person decided to report their taxes in their own way - although, there probably are some very "constructive" approaches used within the system we have.
Strength - because the learner is able to interpret multiple realities, the learner is better able to deal with real life situations. If a learner can problem solve, they may better apply their existing knowledge to a novel situation.(Schuman, 1996)
Is There One Best Learning Theory for Instructional Design?
Why bother with Theory at all?
A solid foundation in learning theory is an essential element in the preparation of ISD professionals because it permeates all dimensions of ISD (Shiffman, 1995). Depending on the learners and situation, different learning theories may apply. The instructional designer must understand the strengths and weaknesses of each learning theory to optimize their use in appropriate instructional design strategy. Recipes contained in ID theories may have value for novice designers (Wilson, 1997), who lack the experience and expertise of veteran designers. Theories are useful because they open our eyes to other possibilities and ways of seeing the world. Whether we realize it or not, the best design decisions are most certainly based on our knowledge of learning theories.
An Eclectic Approach to Theory in Instructional Design
The function of ID is more of an application of theory, rather than a theory itself. Trying to tie Instructional Design to one particular theory is like school vs. the real world. What we learn in a school environment does not always match what is out there in the real world, just as the prescriptions of theory do not always apply in practice, (the real world). From a pragmatic point of view, instructional designers find what works and use it.
What Works and How Can We Use It?
Behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism - what works where and how do we knit everything together to at least give ourselves some focus in our approach to instructional design? First of all we do not need to abandon the systems approach but we must modify it to accommodate constructivist values. We must allow circumstances surrounding the learning situation to help us decide which approach to learning is most appropriate. It is necessary to realize that some learning problems require highly prescriptive solutions, whereas others are more suited to learner control of the environment. (Schwier, 1995)
Jonnassen in Manifesto for a Constructive Approach to Technology in Higher Education ([On-line]) identified the following types of learning and matched them with what he believes to be appropriate learning theory approaches.
1. Introductory Learning - learners have very little directly transferable prior knowledge about a skill or content area. They are at the initial stages of schema assembly and integration. At this stage classical instructional design is most suitable because it is predetermined, constrained, sequential and criterion-referenced. The learner can develop some anchors for further exploration.
2. Advanced Knowledge Acquisition - follows introductory knowledge and precedes expert knowledge. At this point constructivist approaches may be introduced.
3. Expertise is the final stage of knowledge acquisition. In this stage the learner is able to make intelligent decisions within the learning environment. A constructivist approach would work well in this case.
Having pointed out the different levels of learning, Jonassen stresses that it is still important to consider the context before recommending any specific methodology.
Reigeluth's Elaboration Theory which organizes instruction in increasing order of complexity and moves from prerequisite learning to learner control may work in the eclectic approach to instructional design, since the learner can be introduced to the main concepts of a course and then move on to more of a self directed study that is meaningful to them and their particular context.
After having compared and contrasted behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism, Ertmer and Newby (1993) feel that the instructional approach used for novice learners may not be efficiently stimulating for a learner who is familiar with the content. They do not advocate one single learning theory, but stress that instructional strategy and content addressed depend on the level of the learners. Similar to Jonassen, they match learning theories with the content to be learned:
... a behavioral approach can effectively facilitate mastery of the content of a
profession (knowing what); cognitive strategies are useful in teaching problem-solving tactics where defined facts and rules are applied in unfamiliar situations(knowing how); and constructivist strategies are especially suited to dealing withill-defined problems through reflection-in-action. (Ertmer P. & Newby, T., 1993)
Behavioral
... tasks requiring a low degree of processing (e.g., basic paired associations,discriminations, rote memorization) seem to be facilitated by strategies mostfrequently associated with a behavioral outlook (e.g., stimulus-response, contiguityof feedback/reinforcement).
Cognitive
Tasks requiring an increased level of processing (e.g., classifications, rule orprocedural executions) are primarily associated with strategieshaving a stronger cognitive emphasis (e.g., schematic organization, analogicalreasoning, algorithmic problem solving).
ConstructiveTasks demanding high levels of processing (e.g., heuristic problem solving,personal selection and monitoring of cognitive strategies) are frequently
est learned with strategies advanced by the constructivist perspective (e.g.,situated learning, cognitive apprenticeships, social negotiation.
Friday, February 15, 2008
Writing Objectives
A Guide to Writing Learning Objectives
Clearly defining learning objectives or outcomes is one of the early steps in designing instructional products and forms the nucleus upon which the rest of the instructional agenda is built. An objective is a statement which specifies in measurable terms what a learner will be able to accomplish as a result of instruction. It is a description of an acceptable level of performance learners must exhibit at the end of an instructional event.
Why Objectives?
Learning objectives help clarify the instructional intent of a course and are beneficial to all stakeholders involved, especially the course designer as well as the learner.
For the course designer, clearly defining objectives upfront can help influence the:
Course planning process.
Selection of the media and instructional strategies.
Selection of what content to include and the design and organization of instructional materials.
Design of evaluation strategies to measure the effectiveness of the course and the degree to which a learner has acquired the desired knowledge and performance.
Frequently, you hear the merits of a media (e.g., Internet based, Video-conference) being discussed even before analyzing the audience and objectives. Just as a builder does not select materials for construction until blueprints (objectives) are drawn, similarly an instructional designer needs to have clearly defined objectives before selecting the media, content and instructional strategies.
For the learner, the objectives you define can help:
Communicate the intent of the course or module, thereby dispelling any unrealistic expectations.
Motivate by clarifying “what’s in it for them”.
Provide a frame of reference to measure personal progress within a course so as to organize efforts towards meeting objectives.
Identify problem areas which may require further review or remedial work.
For the learning program and hosting institution, it provides a basis for evaluation.The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity, but to provide a clear focus and direction to both designers and learners so that the learning experience can be designed pedagogically and measured objectively
Goals vs. Objectives
The difference between goals and objectives is that goals are broad, generalized statements of instructional intent, while objectives are specific, measurable outcomes that help a learner achieve the goals. For example:
Goal The overall goal of this module is to help participants understand how environmental assessments can ensure sustainable development outcomes.
Objectives: Evaluate the trade-offs between the three environmental categories to ensure fair screening of different projects.
Identify through field-based examination the precise range of environment impacts and estimate their relative importance.
Given project data, prepare an Environmental Management plan based on guidelines provided to mitigate adverse environmental impacts.
Typically, goals are written using amorphous terms such as: understand, appreciate, know, learn, become aware of, which may not be directly measurable. As illustrated in the above example, goals are useful as organizing principles of instructional direction for writing objectives. A single goal may hve several subordinate learning objectives.
Clearly defining learning objectives or outcomes is one of the early steps in designing instructional products and forms the nucleus upon which the rest of the instructional agenda is built. An objective is a statement which specifies in measurable terms what a learner will be able to accomplish as a result of instruction. It is a description of an acceptable level of performance learners must exhibit at the end of an instructional event.
Why Objectives?
Learning objectives help clarify the instructional intent of a course and are beneficial to all stakeholders involved, especially the course designer as well as the learner.
For the course designer, clearly defining objectives upfront can help influence the:
Course planning process.
Selection of the media and instructional strategies.
Selection of what content to include and the design and organization of instructional materials.
Design of evaluation strategies to measure the effectiveness of the course and the degree to which a learner has acquired the desired knowledge and performance.
Frequently, you hear the merits of a media (e.g., Internet based, Video-conference) being discussed even before analyzing the audience and objectives. Just as a builder does not select materials for construction until blueprints (objectives) are drawn, similarly an instructional designer needs to have clearly defined objectives before selecting the media, content and instructional strategies.
For the learner, the objectives you define can help:
Communicate the intent of the course or module, thereby dispelling any unrealistic expectations.
Motivate by clarifying “what’s in it for them”.
Provide a frame of reference to measure personal progress within a course so as to organize efforts towards meeting objectives.
Identify problem areas which may require further review or remedial work.
For the learning program and hosting institution, it provides a basis for evaluation.The purpose of objectives is not to restrict spontaneity, but to provide a clear focus and direction to both designers and learners so that the learning experience can be designed pedagogically and measured objectively
Goals vs. Objectives
The difference between goals and objectives is that goals are broad, generalized statements of instructional intent, while objectives are specific, measurable outcomes that help a learner achieve the goals. For example:
Goal The overall goal of this module is to help participants understand how environmental assessments can ensure sustainable development outcomes.
Objectives: Evaluate the trade-offs between the three environmental categories to ensure fair screening of different projects.
Identify through field-based examination the precise range of environment impacts and estimate their relative importance.
Given project data, prepare an Environmental Management plan based on guidelines provided to mitigate adverse environmental impacts.
Typically, goals are written using amorphous terms such as: understand, appreciate, know, learn, become aware of, which may not be directly measurable. As illustrated in the above example, goals are useful as organizing principles of instructional direction for writing objectives. A single goal may hve several subordinate learning objectives.
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